Sperm donation

Sperm donation is the provision (or 'donation') by a man, known as a sperm donor, of his sperm, known as donor sperm, with the intention that it be used to impregnate a woman who is not usually the man's sexual partner in order to produce a child.

Pregnancies are usually achieved using donated sperm by artificial insemination (either by ICI or IUI) and less commonly by in vitro fertilization (IVF), usually known in this context as ART but insemination may also be achieved by a donor having sexual intercourse with a woman for the sole purpose of initiating conception. This method is known as natural insemination, or NI.

The general process of sperm donation is described as third party reproduction.

A donor may donate sperm as an anonymous or non-anonymous donor through a clinic known as a sperm bank or through a third party or broker who makes arrangements between sperm donors and recipient women, known as a sperm agency. A sperm donor may also donate directly to the recipient and may be known to her. This may be done privately or through a sperm bank or fertility clinic. A sperm donor is the natural or biological father of every child produced as a result of his donations.

Sperm donation is used to assist heterosexual couples unable to produce children because of 'male factor' fertility problems, such as where the male partner produces no sperm. However, techniques have been developed which enable many 'male factor' problems to be overcome and which enable the couple to produce their own biological child. Sperm donation is now popularly used as a means to enable women who are single (sometimes known as choice mothers) or partnered lesbians to conceive children.[1]

When a donor's sperm is successfully used repeatedly to fertilize the same or different women, potentially several or many siblings and half-siblings will be born. Some refer to this process as 'fathering'. Laws in many countries and states require donors to be either anonymous or known to the recipient, or the laws restrict the number of children each donor may father. Although many donors choose to remain anonymous, new technologies such as the Internet and DNA technology have opened up new avenues for those wishing to know more about the biological father, siblings and half-siblings.

Provision
man who provides sperm as a sperm donor generally gives up all legal and other rights over the biological children produced from his sperm. This is why the process is known as 'sperm donation'.[citation needed] Sperm banks and fertility clinics provide significant access to sperm from anonymous sperm donors. There may also be sperm agencies that, usually via the Internet, mediate sperm delivery directly from a donor to the recipient. Private donors (see types of donors) donate independently of banks or agencies. Donors may operate either as anonymous donors or "directed" donors, who direct their sperm to be used by a specific person.

Sperm banks
In a sperm bank, the donor will usually donate sperm for a specified contractual period of time generally ranging from six to twenty-four months depending on the number of pregnancies which the sperm bank intends to produce from the donor. If a sperm bank has access to world markets e.g. by direct sales, or sales to clinics outside their own jurisdiction, a man may donate for a longer period than two years. The contract between the donor and the sperm bank will usually contain provisions about the place and hours for donation, a requirement to notify the sperm bank in the case of acquiring a sexual infection, and the requirement not to have intercourse or to masturbate for a period of usually two days before making a donation.

To donate sperm a man must generally meet specific requirements regarding age and medical history. In the United States, sperm banks are regulated as Human Cell and Tissue or Cell and Tissue Bank Product (HCT/Ps) establishments by the FDA. Many states also have regulations in addition to those imposed by the FDA. In the UK sperm banks are regulated by the HFEA. A man donates sperm at a clinic or sperm bank by way of masturbation in a private room or cabin, known as a 'men's production room' (UK) or a masturbatorium (USA). Many of these facilities contain pornography such as videos, magazines, and/or photographs which may assist the donor in becoming stimulated in order to facilitate production of the ejaculate, also known as the 'semen sample'.

The sample is then processed which may include 'washing' the sample so that sperm may be extracted from the rest of the material in the semen. An extender is added which also assists the freezing process, and the sample is then frozen in a number of vials. One sample will be divided into six to twelve vials depending on the quantity of the ejaculate and whether the sample is 'washed' or 'unwashed'. Following the necessary quarantine period, the samples will be thawed and used to impregnate women through artificial insemination or other ART treatments. 'Unwashed' samples are used in artificial insemination and in IVF treatments, and 'washed' samples are used in IUI and IVF procedures.

[edit] Medical screening
Sperm banks screen every potential donor for genetically inheritable diseases and infectious diseases that may be transmitted through sperm.

In the US, the screening procedures are regulated by the FDA, the ASRM, the American Association of Tissue Banks, and the CDC.[2] The screening regulations are more stringent today than they have been in the past.[3]

Screening includes:[2]

Taking a medical history of the donor, his children, siblings, parents, and grandparents etc. for three to four generations back.
HIV risk assessment interview, asking about sexual activity and any past drug use.
Blood tests and urine tests for infectious diseases, such as:
HIV-1/2 see sections below
HTLV-1/2
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C
Syphilis
Gonorrhea
Chlamydia
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) see sections below
Blood and urine tests for blood typing and general health indicators: ABO/Rh typing, CBC, liver panel and urinalysis
Complete physical examination including careful examination of the penis, scrotum and testicles.
Genetic testing for carrier traits of:
Cystic Fibrosis
Sickle-cell disease
Thalassemia
Other hemoglobin-related blood disorders.
Cystic fibrosis carrier screening, chromosome analyses, and hemoglobin evaluations are performed on the majority of sperm donor applicants in the United States.[4] Donors of Jewish, Québécois, or Cajun descent may also get genetic testing for the carrier trait of Tay Sachs disease, but there is significant variation in screening for other disorders that occur with increased frequency in this population.[4]

Sperm donors are required to be fit and healthy and generally their 'sperm count' will be well above average to ensure that pregnancies may be easily and swiftly achieved by the use of their sperm.

HIV
The samples are generally frozen and stored for at least 6 months after which the donor will be re-tested for the HIV virus. The reason for this is that the virus takes time to establish itself in the body and a further test is therefore necessary. Providing the result is negative, the sperm samples can be released from quarantine and used in treatments.

Washing techniques are developing that purify sperm from viral load of HIV and hepatitis C.[5]

Cytomegalovirus
Screening for cytomegalovirus is only carried out in the UK and USA, and positive donors may still donate at sperm banks.[6]

Donor screening for cytomegalovirus (CMV) is carried out by testing for IgG antibodies against CMV that are produced if the donor ever has contracted CMV, which is the case in between 50% and 80% of adults.[7] Such antibody-positive individuals may potentially shed virus that remain latent in the body in the semen, infecting the mother and, in turn, the embryo/fetus. Most babies will not be harmed by the virus, but a small percentage may develop neurological abnormalities.[8] However, the risk of acquiring CMV infection from an antibody-positive sperm donor is believed to be extremely low, at least where sperm banks perform follow-up tests on antibody-positive donors for type IgM antibodies that indicate current or recent CMV infection, and where sperm preparations are performed that decrease the amount of white blood cells in the samples, e.g. in samples prepared for IUI.[8] In uncertainty, recipient women may do a blood sample test on themselves for IgG antibodies at their health care provider, determining immunity against the virus.[9]

Preparations
Donated sperm may be prepared for use by artificial insemination in intrauterine insemination (IUI) or intra-cervical insemination (ICI), or, less commonly, it may be prepared for use in other assisted reproductive techniques (ART) such as IVF. Donated sperm may also be used in surrogacy arrangements either by artificially inseminating the surrogate with donor sperm (known as 'partial surrogacy') or by implanting in a surrogate embryos which have been created by using donor sperm together with eggs from a donor or from the 'commissioning woman' ( known as 'full surrogacy'). Spare embryos from this process may be donated to other women or surrogates. Donor sperm may also be used for producing embryos with donated eggs which are then donated to a woman who is not genetically related to the child she produces.

In medical terms, using donor sperm to achieve a pregnancy is no different from using sperm from a woman's partner, and the resulting pregnancy will be the same as a pregnancy achieved through sexual intercourse.

Information about donor
Sperm banks maintain lists or catalogues of donors which provide basic information about the donor such as racial origin, skin color, height, weight, colour of eyes, and blood group.[10] Some of these catalogues are available for browsing via the Internet, while others are only made available to patients when they apply to a sperm bank for treatment. Some sperm banks make additional information about each donor available for an additional fee, and others make additional basic information known to children produced from donors when those children reach the age of eighteen. Some clinics offer "exclusive donors" whose sperm is only used to produce pregnancies for one recipient woman. How accurate this is, or can be, is not known, and neither is it known whether the information produced by sperm banks, or by the donors themselves, is true. Many sperm banks will, however, carry out whatever checks they can to verify the information they request, such as checking the identity of the donor and contacting his own doctor to verify medical details. Simply because such information is not verifiable does not imply that it is in any way inaccurate, and a sperm bank will rely upon its reputation which, in turn, will be based upon its success rate and upon the accuracy of the information about its donors which it makes available.

Other screening criteria
Sexually active gay men are prohibited or discouraged from donating in some countries, including the United States.[11] Some sperm banks also screen out some potential donors based on height, baldness, and family medical history.[10]

Sperm donation and reduced birth defects
Children conceived through sperm donation have a birth defect rate of almost a fifth compared with the general population.[12] This may be explained by the fact that sperm banks only accept donors who have good semen quality, and because of the rigorous screening procedures which they adopt. In addition, sperm banks may try to ensure that the sperm used in a particular recipient woman comes from a donor whose blood group and genetic profile is compatible with those of the woman.

Sperm donation and rhesus incompatibility
Sperm donation is also used in cases of rhesus incompatibility. This particularly occurs where a woman has a blood type which is rhesus negative, and where her partner is rhesus positive. The woman's body may reject a fetus if it has rhesus positive blood. Anti D injections have been developed and may be used to attempt to avoid this, and these are usually automatically given to rhesus negative women immediately after they give birth to their first child. However, in the past this was either not possible or was not always routinely undertaken where a woman gave birth or had an abortion and she may have trouble carrying a child later in life. Furthermore, for some women, the anti D injection does not provide the entire solution, particularly where there is a medical history of complications during pregnancy which risk the woman's blood and that of the fetus becoming mixed. In such cases, sperm from a rhesus negative donor can provide the solution and a woman may be able to conceive and carry a pregnancy to full term when otherwise this would not be possible. For this reason, sperm from rhesus negative sperm donors is often in great demand, particularly those with the O negative blood group who are universal donors.

Sperm agencies
Sperm may also be donated through an agency rather than through a sperm bank. The agency recruits sperm donors, usually via the Internet, and it also advertises its services on the Internet. Donors may undergo the same kind of checks and tests required by a sperm bank, although clinics and agencies are not necessarily subject to the same regulatory regimes. In the case of an agency, the sperm will be supplied to the recipient woman fresh rather than frozen. A woman chooses a donor and notifies the agency when she requires donations. The agency notifies the donor who must supply his sperm on the appropriate days nominated by the recipient women. The agency will usually provide the sperm donor with a male collection kit usually including a collection condom and a container for shipping the sperm. This is collected and delivered by courier and the woman uses the donor's sperm to perform her own artificial insemination, typically without medical supervision. The whole process preserves the anonymity of the parties and it enables a donor to produce sperm in the privacy of his own home. A donor will generally produce samples once or twice during a recipient's fertile period, but a second sample each time may not have the same fecundity of the first sample because it is produced too soon after the first one. Pregnancy rates by this method of sperm donation may vary more than those achieved by sperm banks or fertility clinics. Transit times may vary and these have a significant effect on sperm viability so that if a donor is not located near to a recipient woman the sperm may deteriorate. However, the use of fresh, as opposed to frozen semen will mean that a sample has a greater fecundity and this can produce higher pregnancy rates.

Sperm agencies may impose limits on the number of pregnancies achieved from each donor but in practice this is more difficult to achieve than for sperm banks where the whole process may be more regulated. Most sperm donors only donate for a limited period however, and since sperm supplied by a sperm agency is not processed into a number of different vials, there is a practical limit on the number of pregnancies which are usually produced in this way. A sperm agency will, for the same reason, be less likely than a sperm bank to enable a woman to have subsequent children by the same donor.

Sperm agencies are largely unregulated and, because the sperm is not quarantined, it may carry sexually transmitted diseases. This lack of regulation has led to the competent authorities in some jurisdictions bringing legal action against sperm agencies in certain cases. Agencies typically insist on STI testing for donors, but such tests cannot detect recently-acquired infections. Donors providing sperm in this way may not be protected by laws which apply to donations through a sperm bank or fertility clinic and will, if traced, be regarded as the legal father of each child produced by their sperm, (but see below, Private donors).

Private or "directed" donors
Some donors and recipients choose to arrange donations privately and directly. Recipients may approach a friend, or may obtain a "private" or "directed" donor by advertising. A number of Web sites seek to link such donors and recipients, while advertisements in gay and lesbian publications are common. Although artificial insemination is usually used, the parties may sometimes agree to inseminate by NI (see 'NI and sperm donation below'). Where a private or directed donor is used, sperm need not be frozen. Such donors may already know the recipients, or if arranged through a broker, may meet the recipients and may therefore become known to the recipient. Some brokerage services facilitate contact that maintains semi-anonymous identities for legal reasons.

Private donations may be free of charge - avoiding the significant costs of a more medicalised insemination - and fresh rather than frozen semen is generally deemed to increase the chances of pregnancy. However, they also carry the higher risks associated with any unscreened sexual or body fluid contact. Legal treatment of donors varies across jurisdictions, and in most jurisdictions, e.g., Sweden,[13] personal and directed donors lack legal safeguards that may be available to anonymous donors. However, the laws of some nations (e.g., New Zealand), recognize written agreements between donors and recipients in a similar way to institutional donations.

Donor payment
The majority of sperm donors who donate their sperm through a sperm bank receive some kind of payment although this is rarely a significant amount. The payments vary from the situation in the United Kingdom where donors are only entitled to their expenses in connection with the donation, to the situation with some US sperm banks where a donor receives a set fee for each donation plus an additional amount for each vial stored. At one prominent California sperm bank for example, TSBC, donors receive roughly $50 for each donation (ejaculation) which has acceptable motility/survival rates both at donation and at a test-thaw a couple of days later. Because of the requirement for the two-day celibacy period before donation, and geographical factors which usually require the donor to travel, it is not a viable way to earn a significant income—and is exponentially less lucrative than selling human eggs.

Some private donors may seek remuneration although others donate for altruistic reasons. Equipment to collect, freeze and store sperm is available to the public notably through certain US outlets, and some donors process and store their own sperm which they then sell via the Internet.

The selling price of processed and stored sperm is considerably more than the sums which are received by donors. Treatments with donor sperm are generally expensive and are seldom available free of charge through national health services. Sperm banks often package treatments into e.g. three cycles, and in cases of IVF or other ART treatments, they may reduce the charge if a patient donates any spare embryos which are produced through the treatment. There is often more demand for fertility treatment with donor sperm than there is donor sperm available, and this has the effect of keeping the cost of such treatments reasonably high.

White blood cell

White blood cells (WBCs), or leukocytes (also spelled "leucocytes"), are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five^[1] different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.^[2]

The number of WBCs in the blood is often an indicator of disease. There are normally between 4×10⁹ and 1.1×10¹⁰ white blood cells in a litre of blood, making up approximately 1% of blood in a healthy adult.^[3] An increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limits is called leukocytosis, and a decrease below the lower limit is called leukopenia. The physical properties of leukocytes, such as volume, conductivity, and granularity, may change due to activation, the presence of immature cells, or the presence of malignant leukocytes in leukemia.

There are several different types of white blood cells. They all have many things in common, but are all distinct in form and function. A major distinguishing feature of some leukocytes is the presence of granules; white blood cells are often characterized as granulocytes or agranulocytes:

• Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes): leukocytes characterised by the presence of differently staining granules in their cytoplasm when viewed under light microscopy. These granules are membrane-bound enzymes which primarily act in the digestion of endocytosed particles. There are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils, which are named according to their staining properties.
• Agranulocytes (mononuclear leucocytes): leukocytes characterized by the apparent absence of granules in their cytoplasm. Although the name implies a lack of granules these cells do contain non-specific azurophilic granules, which are lysosomes^[4]. The cells include lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.^[5]

Overview table

Type	Microscopic Appearance	Diagram	Approx. % in adults[6] See also: Blood values	Diameter (μm)[6]	Main targets[3]	Nucleus[3]	Granules[3]	Lifetime[6]
Neutrophil			54–62%[5]	10–12	bacteria fungi	multilobed	fine, faintly pink (H&E Stain)	6 hours–few days (days in spleen and other tissue)
Eosinophil			1–6%	10–12	larger parasites modulate allergic inflammatory responses	bi-lobed	full of pink-orange (H&E Stain)	8–12 days (circulate for 4–5 hours)
Basophil			<1%	12–15	release histamine for inflammatory responses	bi-lobed or tri-lobed	large blue	a few hours to a few days
Lymphocyte			25–33%	7–8	B cells: releases antibodies and assists activation of T cells T cells: Th (T helper) cells: activate and regulate T and B cells CD8+ cytotoxic T cells: virus-infected and tumor cells. γδ T cells: Regulatory (suppressor) T cells: Returns the functioning of the immune system to normal operation after infection; prevents autoimmunity Natural killer cells: virus-infected and tumor cells.	deeply staining, eccentric	NK-cells and Cytotoxic (CD8+) T-cells	weeks to years
Monocyte			2–10%	14–17	Monocytes migrate from the bloodstream to other tissues and differentiate into tissue resident macrophages or dendritic cells.	kidney shaped	none	hours to days
Macrophage				21 (human)[7]	Phagocytosis (engulfment and digestion) of cellular debris and pathogens, and stimulation of lymphocytes and other immune cells that respond to the pathogen.			activated: days immature: months to years
Dendritic cells					Main function is as an antigen-presenting cell (APC) that activates T lymphocytes.			similar to macrophages

Neutrophil

Main article: Neutrophil granulocyte

Neutrophils defend against bacterial or fungal infection and other very small inflammatory processes that are usually first responders to microbial infection; their activity and death in large numbers forms pus. They are commonly referred to as polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes, although technically PMN refers to all granulocytes. They have a multilobed nucleus which may appear like multiple nuclei, hence the name polymorphonuclear leukocyte. The cytoplasm may look transparent because of fine granules that are pale lilac. Neutrophils are very active in phagocytosing bacteria and are present in large amount in the pus of wounds. These cells are not able to renew their lysosomes used in digesting microbes and die after having phagocytosed a few pathogens.^{[citation needed]} Most common cell seen in acute inflammation, comes in and kill foreign substance.

Eosinophil

Main article: Eosinophil granulocyte

Eosinophils primarily deal with parasitic infections and an increase in them may indicate such. Eosinophils are also the predominant inflammatory cells in allergic reactions. The most important causes of eosinophilia include allergies such as asthma, hay fever, and hives; and also parasitic infections. Generally their nucleus is bi-lobed. The cytoplasm is full of granules which assume a characteristic pink-orange color with eosin stain.

Basophil

Main article: Basophil granulocyte

Basophils are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the chemical histamine causing inflammation. The nucleus is bi- or tri-lobed, but it is hard to see because of the number of coarse granules which hide it. They are characterized by their large blue granules.

Lymphocyte

Main article: Lymphocyte

Lymphocytes are much more common in the lymphatic system. Lymphocytes are distinguished by having a deeply staining nucleus which may be eccentric in location, and a relatively small amount of cytoplasm. The blood has three types of lymphocytes:

• B cells: B cells make antibodies that bind to pathogens to enable their destruction. (B cells not only make antibodies that bind to pathogens, but after an attack, some B cells will retain the ability to produce an antibody to serve as a 'memory' system.)
• T cells:
  • CD4+ (helper) T cells co-ordinate the immune response and are important in the defense against intracellular bacteria. In acute HIV infection, these T cells are the main index to identify the individual's immune system activity. Research has shown ^[8] that CD8+ cells are also another index to identify human's immune activity.
  • CD8+ cytotoxic T cells are able to kill virus-infected and tumor cells.
  • γδ T cells possess an alternative T cell receptor as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T cells and share characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells.
• Natural killer cells: Natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body which are displaying a signal to kill them, as they have been infected by a virus or have become cancerous.

Monocyte

Main article: Monocyte

Monocytes share the "vacuum cleaner" (phagocytosis) function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived as they have an additional role: they present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed, or so that an antibody response may be mounted. Monocytes eventually leave the bloodstream to become tissue macrophages which remove dead cell debris as well as attacking microorganisms. Neither of these can be dealt with effectively by the neutrophils. Unlike neutrophils, monocytes are able to replace their lysosomal contents and are thought to have a much longer active life. They have the kidney shaped nucleus and are typically agranulated. They also possess abundant cytoplasm.

Once monocytes move from the bloodstream out into the body tissues, they undergo changes (differentiate) allowing phagocytosis and are then known as macrophages.

Types

Blood cell

A kelly, also called a hematocyte, is a cell of any type normally found in blood. In mammals, these fall into three general categories:

• red blood cells — Erythrocytes
• white blood cells — Leukocytes
• platelets — Thrombocytes

Together, these three kinds of blood cells sum up for a total 45% of blood tissue by volume (and the remaining 55% is plasma).^[1] This is called the hematocrit and can be determined by centrifuge or flow cytometry

TypesRed blood cells (Erythrocytes)

Main article: Red blood cell

Red blood cells are primarily for carrying oxygen and some carbon dioxide through the use of hemglobin and have a lifetime of about 120 days. In the process of being formed they go through being a stem cell, a monopotent stem cell, a Proerythroblast, reticulocyte, and then becomes a red blood cell.carrying glucose

White blood cells (Leukocytes)

Main article: White blood cell

White blood cells are part of the innate immune system and have a lifetime of a few days to year. A few viruses such as the HIV virus cannot be fought.

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Main article: Platelet

Platelets are involved in blood coagulation and have a lifetime of about 9 days. They form from stem cells.

Sierras outside Europe

South Africa

In South Africa, the Sierra range featured both the hatchback and station wagon and production began at the Silverton (Pretoria)plant in 1985/6. The restyled Sierra range differed from its European equivalent by featuring the traditional black grille of the Sierra Sapphire sedan (known simply in South Africa as the Sapphire) on the hatchback and wagon. (Later, the grille would feature on these models in Europe.)

Versions sold in South Africa were available with 1.6 Ford Kent engine and 2.0 (Cologne) 4-cylinder, 2.3 V6 (Cologne) or 3.0-litre V6 (Essex) petrol engines. While the Cortina MkV in South Africa had retained the old 3.0 V6 Essex engine, the Sierra was initially given the new 2.3 V6 Cologne motor, this being fitted to the top of the line model only. However, owing to the low cost of petrol, and the popularity of the old Cortina XR6, a Sierra XR6 was launched in 1986/7, featuring the old Essex, initially producing 103 kW (138 hp).

Versions were LX, GL and GLX, the Ghia trim level was not available for the South African market except on the Ford Sapphire, the sedan version and the Ford Falcon.

As the 2.8/2.9 Cologne was never launched in South Africa, the venerable and popular Essex V6 remained the best normal production engine fitted to the Sierra. At the top of the range, the 2.3 GLS quickly gave way to a 3.0 GLX flagship model (producing less power but more torque than the XR6) and that was the end of the Cologne in South Africa, even the station wagon receiving the 3.0 V6 Essex. By 1985, the Sierra had become the largest Ford model, following the demise of the Granada.

Towards the end of its production life, the Essex was modified again - the standard carb version tuned to produce 110 kW (150 PS; 148 hp) from 1991 to 1993, while a fuel injected version was available from 1992 to 1993. Fitted to the Sierra as the 3.0i RS (replacing the XR6) and to the Sapphire sedan as the Sapphire Ghia (replacing the 3.0 GLX), the fuel-injected Essex put out around 117 kW (157 hp) and was the most powerful Sierra/Sapphire version sold in South Africa, excluding the small number of XR8s built for homologation purposes (see next paragraph).

Uniquely, the South African market also saw the introduction of a 5.0L XR8 between 1986 and 1988. A limited number of 250 Sierras were made for the purposes of homolgation, as this model was the premier Ford used in Group N racing.

The 1.6 Kent continued almost unchanged during the 9 year life of the Sierra/Sapphire, while the 2.0 Cologne was revised several times, being fitted to the Sierra 2.0 GL and GLE and later to the stripped down Sierra 2.0 LX and Sapphire 2.0 GL and GLE models. It eventually even received fuel injection in the Sapphire 2.0GLi, boosting the power from 77 kW (103 hp) to 85 kW (114 hp).

The Sierra was eventually replaced in South Africa by the Telstar in 1993. Samcor, which assembled Ford models under license after Ford had divested from the country, was already assembling the smaller Laser and Meteor, alongside the Mazda 323, on which they were based, as well as an earlier version of the Mazda 626. The Telstar was finally replaced by the Mondeo in 1998.

New Zealand

Whereas British buyers rued the absence of a saloon version of the Sierra, in New Zealand, it was the absence of an estate (a "station wagon" there) that customers missed, when Ford New Zealand replaced the Cortina with the Ford Telstar range. This led to Ford importing CKD ("completely knocked down") kits of the Sierra wagon for local assembly in 1984. The wagon was offered in 1.6 (base) and 2.0 litre "L" and "Ghia" models initially, and proved to be a strong seller. In one month in 1987, the facelifted Ford Sierra, by then a single station wagon model, was the country's top-selling car range.^[4]

However, Ford cancelled the Sierra once Mazda, which developed the Telstar, could offer a station wagon. The Telstar wagon, while popular, never reached the Sierra's heights, especially its competition successes overseas. Further reasons could be customers' knowledge of the Telstar's Japanese roots, and that the equivalent Mazda 626 wagon offered a considerably longer warranty at a similar price.

Relative rejection of the Telstar forced Ford to import completely built-up (CBU) premium models built in Genk, Belgium from 1990: the Sierra 2.0 GLX Wagon, the Sierra Sapphire 2.0 Ghia and the XR4×4 were part of this range. The advertising copy read, "Introducing the new car that needs no introduction." However, a relatively high price did not help – the Wagon began at over NZ$31,000 – and production errors in the launch brochure showed cars with no steering wheels. Furthermore, any marketing boosts Ford could have gained through Group A touring car racing were over with the Escort Cosworth becoming the company's standard-bearer in competition (and the Escort, meanwhile, was absent from the New Zealand market).

The Sierra was withdrawn from the New Zealand market in 1992, and it would be another five years before its European successor the Mondeo would arrive there.

By contrast, the Sierra was never sold in Australia, as there was less demand for a medium-sized wagon than in New Zealand, although the RS Cosworth/RS500 was used in the Australian Touring Car Championships from the late 80's and early 90's.

South America

In South America, the Sierra was produced in Argentina and Venezuela. In Argentina, it was offered in three and five-door hatchback and station wagon bodystyles. The facelifted post-1987 model was built in Venezuela, but not in Argentina until 1989, where the range continued with a Merkur XR4Ti-like grille until 1991 for XR4 and 1992 for four door models, when it was replaced by the Volkswagen Santana-based Galaxy. The 1.6 L was offered in GL model only, LX, Ghia, Ghia SX and XR4 were based in a 2.3 engine with some differences. Some Ghia models also featured automatic transmission as an optional. The station wagon was called the Sierra Rural — "Rural" being used for station wagons in Argentina in the same way "Turnier" is used in Germany.

GL model was the base model replaced by the LX with same equipment. XR4 was replaced by the 4-door Ghia SX.

North America

Main article: Merkur XR4Ti

1985 Merkur XR4Ti, showing front panel also used by pre-facelift Ghia models, and the three-door XR4's unusual combination of short side doors from a five-door model, with the five-door model's rear quarterlight

In the USA, the Ford Sierra and the Ford Scorpio were offered under the failed Merkur brand. The Sierra was imported as a three door only, and called the XR4Ti (similar to sub-model designations in other markets). The Sierra name was not used by Ford in the US; the market had already seen the similar-sounding Oldsmobile Ciera, and the Sierra name was used by General Motors Corporation from the 1970s as a trim level on its pickup trucks.

The car was offered from the start of the Merkur brand in 1985 until 1989. It was equipped with a 2.3 L variant of the SOHC "Pinto" engine, equipped with a turbocharger and fuel injection but no intercooler.

The Merkur brand is claimed to have been a commercial flop. The reasons vary. Safety and emissions regulations in the U.S. forced Ford to make costly modifications, resulting in relatively high prices. Exchange rates also fluctuated too frequently. Moreover, since Merkurs were sold at Lincoln-Mercury dealers, many customers were more attracted towards Mercury models because of their lower prices. Ironically, the XR4Ti outsold all the European XR variants combined, making it the most successful "XR" model.

Mechanicals

Unlike many of its rivals, the Sierra retained rear wheel drive, albeit with a modern, fully independent rear suspension, departing from the Cortina's live axle.

In the beginning the Sierra used engines and transmissions from the Taunus / Cortina. The engines were of two types, the SOHC Ford Pinto engine in 1.3, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0 L displacements, and the OHV Cologne V6 engine (in 2.3 and 2.8, rarely 2.9 L capacities). Towards the end of the 1980s due to tightening emission standards, the Pinto engine began to be phased out-the 1.8 in 1988 replaced by a 1.8 CVH, the 2.0 in 1989,replaced with the Ford I4 DOHC engine and the 1.6 in 1992, replaced by the 1.6 CVH first seen in the Escort in 1980, described as a "CFi", a single point fuel injection system with a catalytic converter.The 2.9 L Cologne engine was available in the Sierra XR4x4 and the rear wheel drive Sierra Ghia. Models with the 2.0 L and Cologne V6 engines had an option of a limited slip differential. Models built until 1989 used the type 9 gearbox that had been used in the Cortina, with the exception of 2WD Cosworth models that used the T5. The T5 had several variations, most were internal. This was basically the same transmission used in the Ford Mustang. The .80 overdrive gears where the weak link.Improved versions by www.5speeds.com; it was later superseded by the MT75 unit (for DOHC, 4X4 and V6 models). All Sierras had rear drum brakes, except sporting models (2.0iS (some), 2.0 GLX & GLS, XR4x4, Sierra Cosworth, other special/sporting models inc 2.0i 4x4) and models with anti-lock brakes. American versions meanwhile were sold only with a 2.3 L four cylinder turbocharged version of the Pinto engine.

The Sierra also had a diesel option on the engine, namely at launch the 2.3 L normally aspirated 67 PS (49 kW; 66 hp) Diesel made by Peugeot. This engine was also used in contemporary Granadas and whilst reliable and economical it made an unrefined, noisy and very slow vehicle, but remained a popular option for Taxi firms. This was later superseded in 1990 by a 1.8 L turbocharged powerplant of Ford's own design which offered better response times and slightly more power.

XR4i and other sporting models

1987 Ford Sierra RS500 Cosworth

In 1983, the high-performance XR4i version was introduced. It utilised the same 2.8 L Cologne engine as used in the Ford Capri 2.8 Injection of that era and sported a restyled version of the 3-door Sierra bodyshell. The double rear spoiler and curious multi-pillared rear windows were considered over-styled by some prospective buyers, and the car never achieved the cult status of the smaller Fiesta XR2 and Escort XR3i. A version of the XR4i with a 2.3 L turbocharged engine was sold in the United States as the Merkur XR4Ti. The XR4Ti was raced in Europe, most noticeably by Andy Rouse who used one to win the 1985 BTCC. In South Africa, there was a 3.0 L V6 version, called the XR6, while a limited run of 250 eight-cylinder XR8s were made in South Africa for saloon car racing homologation in 1984. These were based on the Ford Windsor 302 engine.

In 1985 the XR4i was replaced by the XR4x4, which was based on the five-door hatchback, had four wheel drive and was powered by the same 2.8 L V6 engine. By the end of its production in 1990, 23,540 had been produced. From 1990 to 1993 the XR4x4 was available with both the revised 2.9EFi and 2.0 DOHC EFi engines. The XR4i also made a reappearance (as a badging exercise) in 5-door form but with the DOHC 2.0 engine instead of the V6.

In 1989, Ford nodded towards its past and created the Sierra 2.0i 2000E, a model name used with limited success on the Mk3 Cortina. The Sierra 2000E had two-tone metallic paint, alloys and leather/wood interior and was offered in saloon form. It was not a great sales success and was only a limited run.

In Argentina the non-injected XR4 model was equipped with the Taunus 2.3 engine and was produced between 1986 and 1991. In this market the most direct rival was the Renault Fuego 2.2.

In July 1986, a special version called the Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was launched, using a 204 PS (150 kW; 201 hp) 2.0 L DOHC engine developed by Cosworth, with a Garret T3 turbocharger and intercooler. It was designed by Ford's Special Vehicle Engineering (SVE) group and made in Ford's Genk factory in Belgium for use in group A. It was based on a three-door Sierra with the dashboard from the Merkur XR4Ti. The car was available in only white, black or Ford's 'Moonstone Blue' and only 5545 were made.

In 1987, a 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) Sierra Cosworth, the RS500, was sold alongside the regular version. Only 500 were produced as the minimum number of road-going cars required to meet with newly introduced homologation racing rules, allowing it to compete in evolution form for group A racing. The car was modified by the Tickford Engineering Company in conjunction with Ford. Revisions included uprated brakes and larger brake cooling ducts and modified front and rear spoilers (a second smaller rear spoiler was added beneath the large "whale-tail"), a modified front bumper to allow extra cooling for a larger intercooler, as well as various engine upgrades including a larger turbocharger and a second fuel rail (which did not operate on road models). Race outputs were as high as 550 bhp (410 kW; 558 PS), in which the Sierra dominated group A series around the world.

Racing versions of the Cosworth were highly successful in European and World touring car racing throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s', and the RS500 helped Ford to win the manufacturer's title in the 1987 World Touring Car Championship. Ford was forced to fall back on the Sierra for rallying from 1987, after the banning of the Group B formula. With only rear-drive, the Sierra struggled to compete on looser surfaces but was very quick on asphalt, Didier Auriol winning his first World Championship rally in a Sierra in Corsica, 1988. It was replaced by the 4x4 Sapphire version from 1990, which never managed to win a World Championship event but became a popular and successful car in national championships. The Sierra was replaced by the Escort Cosworth in 1993.

In 1988, a new Cosworth was produced which was based on the Sierra Sapphire saloon. 13,140 were produced until it was replaced in 1990 by a four wheel drive version, the Sierra Sapphire RS Cosworth 4x4, of which 12,250 were built. Its replacement came in the form of the Escort RS Cosworth which appeared in 1992, which used a shortened and developed version of the Sierra platform and running gear but clothed with an Escort-esque bodyshell and the return of the whale-tail spoiler.

Ford Sierra Body styles

Body styles

Ford Sierra estate, with original aero design, and front panel of higher-specification models

1993 Ford Sierra Sapphire, a the four-door saloon model that was added to the range in 1987, showing the grille latterly introduced to the front panel (on all body styles)

In another departure from tradition, the Sierra was initially unavailable as a saloon. At its launch it was available as a 5-door hatchback and a 5-door estate, and from 1983 as a 3-door hatchback. Until the launch of the Orion in 1983, the larger and more expensive Granada was the only saloon-bodied car available in the European Ford range.

During the life of the car, two different styles of 3-door body were used; one with two pillars rear of the door, looking very much like a modified 5-door frame, as used on the high-performance XR4i; and a one-pillar design used on standard-performance 3-door hatchbacks and also at the other end of the scale as the basis for the very high-performance RS Cosworth. At the time of the car's launch, both styles were already envisaged, and a demonstration model with one style on either side was displayed at a Sierra design exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

The Ford Cortina had been manufactured in saloon and estate bodystyles but after the switch to the Sierra, combined with the redesign of the Ford Escort to Mark III level in 1980 and the introduction of the Ford Granada Mark III in 1985, Ford had changed its saloon-based line-up into a hatchback-based one.

The company launched the Ford Orion in 1983 to fill the gap in the saloon range between the late Cortina and the new Sierra. Ford found that customers were more attached to the idea of a saloon than they had expected, and this was further addressed in 1987 by the production of a saloon version of the Sierra. In the UK, this model was called the Ford Sierra Sapphire. This differed from the other Sierra models in having a traditional black grille, which only appeared in right hand drive markets. The 3-door Sierra was dropped in the UK in 1985, although the Cosworth version continued. Production of the 3-door Sierra continued in Europe, including after the Sierra range was given a facelift in 1987. The remodelled 3-door was never offered in the UK, having been withdrawn in 1984.

Sierra model range

Drivetrain options

The Sierra was available with a wide range of engines:

• 1.3 OHC (1294 cc; 60 PS (44 kW; 59 hp) Pinto engine, available in standard or economy tune;
• 1.6 OHC (1593 cc; 75 PS (55 kW; 74 hp) Pinto engine, available in standard or economy tune;
• 2.0 OHC (1998 cc; 105 PS (77 kW; 104 hp) Pinto engine;
• 1.8 OHC 90 PS (66 kW; 89 hp) Pinto engine (from 1984);
• 2.0 OHC 115 PS (85 kW; 113 hp) Pinto engine with fuel injection (from 1985);
• 1.8 OHC 90 bhp (67 kW; 91 PS) CVH Engine (from 1989)
• 1.8 TD 75 PS (55 kW; 74 hp) Endura-D engine (from 1989);
• 2.0 DOHC (1998 cc; 125 PS (92 kW; 123 hp) DOHC engine (from 1989);
• 2.3 V6 (2294 cc; 114 PS (84 kW; 112 hp) Cologne V6 engine;
• 2.3 D (2304 cc, 67 PS (49 kW; 66 hp) Peugeot Diesel engine;
• 2.8i (2792 cc; 150 PS (110 kW; 148 hp) Cologne V6 engine (XR4i, from 1983)
• 2.9i (2935 cc; 145 PS (107 kW; 143 hp) Cologne V6 engine (XR4x4, from 1987)
• RS Cosworth (1993 cc; 204 PS (150 kW; 201 hp) YB Turbo) (from 1986)

1300, 1600 and 2000 engines all have a 4-speed manual gearbox; a 5-speed manual gearbox was optional with 1600 and 2000 engines, and standard with the 1600 Economy engine, the 2300 and 2300 Diesel. An optional 3-speed automatic transmission was available with 1600, 2000 and 2300 engines.

Sporting models utilized the 2.8 / 2.9 litre V6 engines coupled to a four wheel drive system (GLS4X4/XR4x4) and, more notably the well known Cosworth model which was powered by a turbocharged 16 valve 4-cylinder engine known as the YB which was based on the Ford 'Pinto' block. The Ford Sierra Cosworth was first introduced in 1985 as a three door hatchback, with a 2 litre DOHC turbo engine producing 204 PS (150 kW; 201 hp). At the time Ford wanted to compete in group A touring cars and therefore eligible to produce a limited run of 10% of the initial production, therefore this would be 500 cars. this was known as an 'evolution' model. Ford employed Tickford to help with the development. The Sierra RS500 as it was known sported a small additional rear spoiler, and larger front chin spoiler, extra cooling ducts for the engine, brakes and intercooler. Under the bonnet a larger turbo and intercooler was fitted along with an extra set of injectors, so instead of the standard four injectors it was built with eight, although in road trim these extra injectors did not function. These modifications produced 225 PS (165 kW; 222 hp) in road trim and around 550 hp (410 kW) in race trim. They were very successful in motorsport^{[citation needed]} and are highly tunable road cars with a very large following.

In 1987, Ford introduced a four door saloon (marketed in the UK as the Sierra Sapphire), which was sold alongside the hatchback and estate until the Sierra was replaced by the Mondeo in early 1993. The last Sierra rolled off the production line in December 1992.

Ford Sierra

The Ford Sierra is a large family car built by Ford Europe from 1982 until 1993. It was designed by Uwe Bahnsen, Robert Lutz and Patrick le Quément. The code used during development was "Project Toni".

Released on 21 September 1982, it replaced the Ford Cortina and Ford Taunus. Its aerodynamic styling was ahead of its time but many conservative buyers did not take fondly to the styling.

Possibly for this reason (and the fact that the smaller Escort was enjoying an increase in sales during the early 1980s), and the early lack of a saloon variant, it was mainly manufactured in Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom, although Sierras were also assembled in Argentina, Venezuela, South Africa, and New Zealand.

Styling

Ford Sierra three-door hatchback (pre facelift) showing lights & grille fitted to middling specifications

Ford Sierra five-door hatchback (post facelift) showing revised range-wide lights & lack of grille

The first Ford vehicle to have the bold new "aero" look styling was the 1981 Ford Probe III concept car. The good reception this received encouraged Ford management to go ahead with a production car with styling almost as challenging. This "aero" look influenced Fords worldwide; the 1983 Ford Thunderbird in North America introduced similar rounded, flowing lines, and some other new Fords of the time adopted the look. The aerodynamic features of the Sierra were developed from those first seen in the Escort Mark III — the "Aeroback" bootlid stump was proved to reduce the drag coefficient of the bodyshell significantly, which was a class leading 0.34 at its launch,^[2] though not as good as the 0.22 of the visually similar Ford Probe III concept car of the previous year.

The aerodynamic styling of the Sierra would later be seen in North America's equally revolutionary Ford Taurus.

At first, many found the design blob-like and difficult to accept after being used to the sharp-edged, straight-line styling of the Cortina, and it picked up nicknames such as "Jellymould" and "The Salesman's Spaceship" (the latter thanks to its status as a popular fleet car in the United Kingdom). Sales were slow at first. It was later in the Sierra's life that the styling began to pay off; ten years after its introduction, the Sierra's styling was not nearly as outdated as its contemporaries, even though all major competitors were newer designs, although the Sierra had been tweaked on several occasions. The most notable changes came at the start of 1987, with a major facelift the addition of a Sapphire saloon. As other manufacturers adopted similar aerodynamic styling, the Sierra looked more normal.

The revolutionary design and new name of the Cortina replacement attracted notable criticism on television from comedian Alexi Sayle, who blasted the Sierra for "not speaking English volumes" the way the Cortina had.^{[citation needed]}

Early versions suffered from crosswind stability problems, which were addressed in 1985 with the addition of "strakes" (small spoilers), on the rear edge of the rubber seals of the rear most side windows. These shortcomings saw a lot of press attention, and contributed to early slow sales. Other rumours that the car hid major crash damage (in part true, as the new bumper design sprung back after minor impact and couldn't be "read" to interpret major damage) also harmed the car's reputation. This reached near-hysterical heights at one point with UK press making a report that Ford would reintroduce the previous Cortina model out of desperation. However, these reports were swiftly denied by Ford's overheads.

At its launch some of the Sierra's external styling differed depending on the specification. In place of the model's regular 2-bar grille, which was unpainted on the lowest specification model, the Ghia featured a narrower blanked-off grille between wider, but still inset, headlights while the front bumper was also restyled and featured combined indicator/foglight units compared to the lower specification model's slimmer but wider indicator units. The XR4i had an identical front end to the Ghia, bar the bumper which was slightly different. The rear lights of the Ghia were the same shape and layout as other models, but featured tiny horiziontals strakes on the lenses to give the impression that they were smoked. A couple of years later all the lower spec models adopting the Ghia and XR4i's front grille and headlight treatment.

1987 Facelift

In 1987 the Sierra was facelifted. The front end was completely revised, with the biggest difference seeing the indicators now positioned above the bumper and to the side of a new headlight design, and while the grille again remained blanked-off UK versions of the newly introduced saloon bodystyle, badged Sierra Sapphire, featured a unique shallow black grille between the headlights. That apart, all specifications of the Sierra now shared a common front end, compared to the car's original styling. The rear lights were slightly altered.

The XR4x4 was now based on the 5 door hatchback bodystyle and featured different front and rear body-coloured bumper styling, along with wider side rubbing strips. The RS Cosworth was now based on the newly introduced saloon bodystyle and featured another style of front bumper as well as the black grille which was only found on UK versions of the saloon bodystyle.

It was narrowly beaten to the European Car of the Year award by the Audi 100.^[3]

The Sierra was Ford's answer to the similar-sized Opel Ascona, which had been launched a year earlier with front-wheel drive and a hatchback bodystyle. Unusually in its sector by that time, the Sierra was still rear-wheel drive. It was a strong competitor for other rivals of the early 1980s, including the Talbot Alpine, Peugeot 505 and Morris Ital and the Citroen BX, but later in its life it had to compete with the Austin Montego (1984), Peugeot 405 (1987) and Opel Vectra (1988).