Length and trimming
Hair cutting or hair trimming is intended to create or maintain a specific shape and form. Its extent may range from merely trimming the uneven ends of the hair to a uniform length to completely shaving the head.
The overall shape of the hairstyle is usually maintained by trimming it at regular intervals. There are ways to trim one's own hair but usually another person is enlisted to perform the process, as it is difficult to maintain symmetry while cutting hair at the back of one's head. Although trimming enhances the hair's appearance by removing damaged or split ends, it does not promote faster growth or remove all damage along the length of the hair.
Stylists often wash a subject's hair first, so that the hair is cut while still slightly damp. Compared to dry hair, wet hair can be easier to manage in a cut/style situation because the added weight and surface tension of the water cause the strands to stretch downward and cling together along the hair's length, holding a line and making it easier for the stylist to create a form.
Brushing and combing
Brushes and combs are used to organize and untangle the hair, encouraging all of the strands to lie in the same direction and removing debris such as lint, dandruff, or hairs that have already shed from their follicles but continue to cling to the other hairs.
There are all manner of detangling tools available in a wide variety of price ranges. Combs come in all shapes and sizes and all manner of materials including plastics, wood, and horn. Similarly, brushes also come in all sizes and shapes, including various paddle shapes. Most benefit from using some form of a wide tooth comb for detangling. Most physicians advise against sharing hair care instruments like combs and clips, to prevent spreading hair conditions like dandruff and head lice.
The historical dictum to brush hair with one hundred strokes every day is somewhat archaic, dating from a time when hair was washed less frequently; the brushstrokes would spread the scalp's natural oils down through the hair, creating a protective effect. Now, however, this does not apply when the natural oils have been washed off by frequent shampoos. Also, hairbrushes are now usually made with rigid plastic bristles instead of the natural boar's bristles that were once standard; the plastic bristles increase the likelihood of actually injuring the scalp and hair with excessively vigorous brushing.
Drying
Hair dryers speed the drying process of hair by blowing air, which is usually heated, over the wet hair shaft to accelerate the rate of water evaporation.
Excessive heat may increase the rate of shaft-splitting or other damage to the hair. Hair dryer diffusers can be used to widen the stream of air flow so it is weaker but covers a larger area of the hair.
Hair dryers can also be used as a tool to sculpt the hair to a very slight degree. Proper technique involves aiming the dryer such that the air does not blow onto the face or scalp, which can cause burns.
Braiding and “Updos”
Tight or frequent braiding may pull at the hair roots and cause traction alopecia. Rubber bands with metal clasps or tight clips, which bend the hair shaft at extreme angles, can also have the same effect.
If hair is pinned too tightly, or the whole updo slips causing pulling on the hair in the follicle at the hair root are other scenarios that can cause aggravation to the hair follicle and result in headaches. Although many African- Americans use braiding extensions as a form of convenience, it is important not to keep the braids up longer than needed to avoid hair breakage or hair loss.
An industry
Hair styling is a major world industry, from the salon itself to products, advertising, and even magazines on the subject.
Hairstyling tools
Styling tools may include hair irons (including flat, curling, and crimping irons), hair dryers, hair rollers. Hair dressing might also include the use of product to add texture, shine, curl, volume or hold to a particular style.
Hairstyling products
Styling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many and varied. Leave-in conditioner, conditioning treatments, mousse, gels, lotions, waxes, creams, serums, oils, and sprays are used to change the texture or shape of the hair, or to hold it in place in a certain style. Applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair apart from drying it out; most styling products contain alcohols, which can dissolve oils. Many hair products contain chemicals which can cause build-up, resulting in dull hair or a change in perceived texture.
Wigs
Care of human or other natural hair wigs is similar to care of a normal head of hair in that the wig can be brushed, styled, and kept clean using haircare products.
Synthetic wigs are usually made from a fine fiber that mimics human hair. This fiber can be made in almost any color and hairstyle, and is often glossier than human hair. However, this fiber is sensitive to heat and cannot be styled with flat irons or curling irons.There is a newer synthetic fiber that can take heat up to a certain temperature.
Human hair wigs can be styled with heat, and they must be brushed only when dry. Synthetic wigs should be brushed dry before shampooing to remove tangles. To clean the wig, the wig should be dipped into a container with water and mild shampoo, then dipped in clear water and moved up and down to remove excess water. The wig must then be air dried naturally into its own hairstyle.take note if you are religious; most human hair on sale in the west ,are first offered to hindu gods by the owner,the temples later sell this hair for wigs.
Functional and decorative ornaments
There are many options to adorn and arrange the hair. Hairpins, clasps, barrettes, headbands, ribbons, rubber bands, scrunchies, and combs can be used to achieve a variety of styles. There are also many decorative ornaments that, while they may have clasps to affix them to the hair, are used solely for appearance and do not aid in keeping the hair in place.
Thursday, October 28, 2010
Permanent Hair Color
All "permanent" hair color products and lighteners contain a developer, or oxidizing agent, and an alkalizing agent (most often ammonia).
When the tint containing the alkalizing ingredient is combined with the developer cause a chemical reaction that swells the hair permitting the tint to enter the cortex, where the melanin is located. The melanin is lightened and subsumed by the new color. The ammonia swells the cuticle of the hair to allow the color pigments to penetrate deep into the hair shaft.
Permanent color is truly permanent and will not wash out, although it may fade. New hair growth in the hair's natural color will contrast with the colored section of the hair.
Permanent hair dyes can be removed by bleaching, or stripping with a color remover. In the case of striping hair color, this process will only be effective if the original hair color is lighter than the dyed result. Theoretically a color remover will return hair to its natural color if the hair has been color treated but this process is damaging to the hair.
Hair lighteners and bleaches
Bleaching, also referred to as hair lightening or decolorizing, is a chemical process involving the diffusion of natural color pigment or artificial color from hair. Hydrogen peroxide and ammonium hydroxide are frequently used. It has the side effect of raising of the cuticle, making the hair more porous.
Any color treatment to change to a lighter color requires bleaching. After bleaching, a light colored permanent or semi permanent dye or toner may be applied to the hair to further alter the color achieved by bleaching.
Application techniques
Hair color was traditionally applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use several colors to produce streaks or gradations, either on top of the natural color or on top of a single base color. These are referred to as:
Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, usually to create blond streaks.
Lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color.
These can be applied by the following methods:
Foiling, where pieces of foil or plastic film are used to separate off the hair to be colored; especially when applying more than one color.
Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and strands are pulled through with a hook.
Balayage, where hair color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained.
All application techniques can be used with any type of color. For highlights, the hair will usually have to be bleached before coloring.
Alternative hair colorants
Hair and beard colored blue.
A minority of hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. These are available in almost any color imaginable, including green or fuchsia.
These dyes are typically sold in punk-themed stores (such as comic book and music stores), with brand names like "Beyond The Zone", "Splat", "Clairol Jazzing", "Manic Panic", "Special Effects", "Punky Colour", "Stargazer", "La Riche Directions". A permanent alternative in some colors (such as bold red and dark, inky purples and blues) are available from big haircare brands. Some alternative color shades are blacklight reactive, to show up under nightclub lighting.
The chemical formulae of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint, and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. People with darker hair (medium brown to black) will need to use a bleaching kit prior to tint application. Some people with fair hair may benefit from prior bleaching as well. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that hasn't been lightened enough can adversely affect results, especially with pinks, blues, and greens. Although alternative colors are semi-permanent in the cases of some colors, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the colour from bleached or prelightened hair.
Adverse effects of hair coloring
Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing and/or covering up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft. Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results.
Additionally, there is ongoing debate regarding more serious health consequences of hair color usage, including lead poisoning.
Skin irritation and allergy
In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reaction and/or skin irritation.
Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. If any of these symptoms occur, alert your hair colorist immediately so that they can remove the color. Symptoms will not always be present right at the application and processing of the tint but can also arise after hours or even a day.
To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product. This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product. A skin patch test is advised before the use of every coloring process, since allergies can develop even after years of use with no reaction.
Adverse reactions can result from both at-home and salon hair coloring products, as similar chemicals are used in both settings .
In some cases, allergic reactions are caused by the aniline derivative and/or p-Phenylenediamine (PPD) found in permanent hair color.
Hair breakage
Hair that has been damaged by excessive exposure to chemicals is considered 'over-processed'. This results in dry, rough and fragile hair. In extreme cases, the hair can be so damaged that it breaks off entirely. This is especially true for Afro-Caribbean hair, especially if used in combination with relaxers. Treatments are available but the only real solution is to stop the use of chemicals until new hair grows and the damaged hair is cut off.
It is advised that colored hair be deep conditioned regularly, and washed and conditioned with gentle products specifically designed for color-treated hair. This will help keep the hair intact and minimize color fading.
Skin discoloration
Skin and fingernails are made of the same type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin.
This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). A good way to prevent dye discoloration is to put a thin layer of Vaseline or any oil-based preparation around the hairline. It is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.
When the tint containing the alkalizing ingredient is combined with the developer cause a chemical reaction that swells the hair permitting the tint to enter the cortex, where the melanin is located. The melanin is lightened and subsumed by the new color. The ammonia swells the cuticle of the hair to allow the color pigments to penetrate deep into the hair shaft.
Permanent color is truly permanent and will not wash out, although it may fade. New hair growth in the hair's natural color will contrast with the colored section of the hair.
Permanent hair dyes can be removed by bleaching, or stripping with a color remover. In the case of striping hair color, this process will only be effective if the original hair color is lighter than the dyed result. Theoretically a color remover will return hair to its natural color if the hair has been color treated but this process is damaging to the hair.
Hair lighteners and bleaches
Bleaching, also referred to as hair lightening or decolorizing, is a chemical process involving the diffusion of natural color pigment or artificial color from hair. Hydrogen peroxide and ammonium hydroxide are frequently used. It has the side effect of raising of the cuticle, making the hair more porous.
Any color treatment to change to a lighter color requires bleaching. After bleaching, a light colored permanent or semi permanent dye or toner may be applied to the hair to further alter the color achieved by bleaching.
Application techniques
Hair color was traditionally applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use several colors to produce streaks or gradations, either on top of the natural color or on top of a single base color. These are referred to as:
Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, usually to create blond streaks.
Lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color.
These can be applied by the following methods:
Foiling, where pieces of foil or plastic film are used to separate off the hair to be colored; especially when applying more than one color.
Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and strands are pulled through with a hook.
Balayage, where hair color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained.
All application techniques can be used with any type of color. For highlights, the hair will usually have to be bleached before coloring.
Alternative hair colorants
Hair and beard colored blue.
A minority of hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. These are available in almost any color imaginable, including green or fuchsia.
These dyes are typically sold in punk-themed stores (such as comic book and music stores), with brand names like "Beyond The Zone", "Splat", "Clairol Jazzing", "Manic Panic", "Special Effects", "Punky Colour", "Stargazer", "La Riche Directions". A permanent alternative in some colors (such as bold red and dark, inky purples and blues) are available from big haircare brands. Some alternative color shades are blacklight reactive, to show up under nightclub lighting.
The chemical formulae of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint, and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. People with darker hair (medium brown to black) will need to use a bleaching kit prior to tint application. Some people with fair hair may benefit from prior bleaching as well. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that hasn't been lightened enough can adversely affect results, especially with pinks, blues, and greens. Although alternative colors are semi-permanent in the cases of some colors, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the colour from bleached or prelightened hair.
Adverse effects of hair coloring
Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing and/or covering up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft. Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results.
Additionally, there is ongoing debate regarding more serious health consequences of hair color usage, including lead poisoning.
Skin irritation and allergy
In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reaction and/or skin irritation.
Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. If any of these symptoms occur, alert your hair colorist immediately so that they can remove the color. Symptoms will not always be present right at the application and processing of the tint but can also arise after hours or even a day.
To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product. This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product. A skin patch test is advised before the use of every coloring process, since allergies can develop even after years of use with no reaction.
Adverse reactions can result from both at-home and salon hair coloring products, as similar chemicals are used in both settings .
In some cases, allergic reactions are caused by the aniline derivative and/or p-Phenylenediamine (PPD) found in permanent hair color.
Hair breakage
Hair that has been damaged by excessive exposure to chemicals is considered 'over-processed'. This results in dry, rough and fragile hair. In extreme cases, the hair can be so damaged that it breaks off entirely. This is especially true for Afro-Caribbean hair, especially if used in combination with relaxers. Treatments are available but the only real solution is to stop the use of chemicals until new hair grows and the damaged hair is cut off.
It is advised that colored hair be deep conditioned regularly, and washed and conditioned with gentle products specifically designed for color-treated hair. This will help keep the hair intact and minimize color fading.
Skin discoloration
Skin and fingernails are made of the same type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin.
This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). A good way to prevent dye discoloration is to put a thin layer of Vaseline or any oil-based preparation around the hairline. It is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.
Hair coloring
Hair coloring is the practice of changing the color of hair. Common reasons are to cover gray hair, to change to a color regarded as more fashionable or desirable, and to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.
Types of hair color
Temporary hair color
Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such costume parties and Halloween.
The pigment molecules in temporary hair color are large and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing.
Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft. It lasts for about a few hours to 1 day.
Semi-permanent hair color
Semi-permanent hair dye has smaller molecules than temporary dyes, and is therefore able to partially penetrate the hair shaft. For this reason, the color will survive repeated washing, typically 4-5 shampoos or a few weeks. Semi-permanents contain no, or very low levels of developer, peroxide or ammonia, and are therefore safer for damaged or fragile hair. However, semi-permanents may still contain the toxic compound P-Phenylenediamine or other such ingredients.
The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity, so there will be subtle variations in shade across the whole head. This gives a more natural result than the solid, allover color of a permanent dye. However, it also means that gray or white hairs will not dye to the same shade as the rest of the hair. If there are only a few gray/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, there will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to permanent color can sometimes be delayed by using the semi-permanent as a base and adding highlights.
Semi-permanent color cannot lighten the hair.
Demi-permanent hair color
Demi permanent hair color is permanent hair color that contains an alkaline agent other than ammonia (e.g., ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) and, while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. Since the alkaline agents employed in dem-perms are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia these product provide no lightening of hair's color during dying. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart.
Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.
Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are, in essence, permanent color and the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packet.
Types of hair color
Temporary hair color
Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such costume parties and Halloween.
The pigment molecules in temporary hair color are large and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing.
Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft. It lasts for about a few hours to 1 day.
Semi-permanent hair color
Semi-permanent hair dye has smaller molecules than temporary dyes, and is therefore able to partially penetrate the hair shaft. For this reason, the color will survive repeated washing, typically 4-5 shampoos or a few weeks. Semi-permanents contain no, or very low levels of developer, peroxide or ammonia, and are therefore safer for damaged or fragile hair. However, semi-permanents may still contain the toxic compound P-Phenylenediamine or other such ingredients.
The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity, so there will be subtle variations in shade across the whole head. This gives a more natural result than the solid, allover color of a permanent dye. However, it also means that gray or white hairs will not dye to the same shade as the rest of the hair. If there are only a few gray/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, there will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to permanent color can sometimes be delayed by using the semi-permanent as a base and adding highlights.
Semi-permanent color cannot lighten the hair.
Demi-permanent hair color
Demi permanent hair color is permanent hair color that contains an alkaline agent other than ammonia (e.g., ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) and, while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. Since the alkaline agents employed in dem-perms are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia these product provide no lightening of hair's color during dying. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart.
Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.
Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are, in essence, permanent color and the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packet.
Sexual attraction
Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal can refer to anything which has the ability to attract the sexual or erotic interest of a person. The attraction can be to the physical or other quality or trait of a person, or to such quality in the context in which it appears. The attraction may be to a person's looks or movements or to their voice or smell, besides other factors. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume, hair style and anything else which can attract the sexual interest of another person. It can also be influenced by individual genetic, psychological or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities of the person. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person, that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and also on the criteria of the person who is attracted.
Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness, a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other gender. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic). Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.[1]
The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to attract the attention of others is the basis of their use in advertising, film and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.
Social and biological factors
Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism as well as the basic biological drive that exists in all species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond that exists between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; and philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual or religious aspects.
Which aspects of a person's sexuality attracts another is influenced by cultural factors, and has varied over time, as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.
A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:
Visual perception (how the other looks and acts);
Audition (how the other's voice and/or movements sound).
Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent);
As with other animals, pheromones may also have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently a pleasant smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer[citation needed], increasing the probability that the pheromones from the individual will also be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed,[2] although it appears to have some scientific basis.[3]
Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism, and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.
Enhancing sexual attractiveness
People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another in order to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking or brief physical contact.[4]
The prospect of physical intimacy is at times the most effective means of sexual attraction.
Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness, a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other gender. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic). Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.[1]
The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to attract the attention of others is the basis of their use in advertising, film and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.
Social and biological factors
Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism as well as the basic biological drive that exists in all species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond that exists between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; and philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual or religious aspects.
Which aspects of a person's sexuality attracts another is influenced by cultural factors, and has varied over time, as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.
A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:
Visual perception (how the other looks and acts);
Audition (how the other's voice and/or movements sound).
Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent);
As with other animals, pheromones may also have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently a pleasant smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer[citation needed], increasing the probability that the pheromones from the individual will also be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed,[2] although it appears to have some scientific basis.[3]
Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism, and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.
Enhancing sexual attractiveness
People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another in order to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking or brief physical contact.[4]
The prospect of physical intimacy is at times the most effective means of sexual attraction.
Sexy Love
Sexy Love
"Sexy Love" is the fourth and final U.S. single and the second and final international single released from R&B and pop artist Ne-Yo's debut album, In My Own Words. It has reached number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100. In the United Kingdom, the single charted at number twenty-one on downloads alone. It rose 16 places and peaked at number five once the physical single was released.
Sunday, October 24, 2010
Architecture and design
The tower is designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, which also designed the Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower) in Chicago, Illinois and the new One World Trade Center in New York City, among numerous other famous high-rises. The building resembles the bundled tube form of the Willis Tower, but is not a bundle tube structure. Its design is reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's vision for The Illinois, a mile-high skyscraper designed for Chicago. According to Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the building's design team, Burj Khalifa was designed based on the 73-floor Tower Palace Three, an all-residential building in Seoul, South Korea. In its early planning, Burj Khalifa was intended to be entirely residential.[34]
Subsequent to the original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Emaar Properties chose Hyder Consulting to be the supervising engineer.[39] Hyder was selected for its expertise in structural and MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) engineering.[40] Hyder Consulting's role was to supervise construction, certify SOM's design, and be the engineer and architect of record to the UAE authorities.[39] Emaar Properties also engaged GHD,[41] an international multidisciplinary consulting firm, to act as an independent verification and testing authority for concrete and steelwork.
The design of Burj Khalifa is derived from patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture.[24] According to the structural engineer, Bill Baker of SOM, the building's design incorporates cultural and historical elements particular to the region. The Y-shaped plan is ideal for residential and hotel usage, with the wings allowing maximum outward views and inward natural light.[24] The design architect, Adrian Smith, has said the triple-lobed footprint of the building was inspired by the flower Hymenocallis.[42] The tower is composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the tower rises from the flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiralling pattern, decreasing the cross section of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. There are 27 terraces in Burj Khalifa. At the top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan maximizes views of the Persian Gulf. Viewed from above or from the base, the form also evokes the onion domes of Islamic architecture. During the design process, engineers rotated the building 120 degrees from its original layout to reduce stress from prevailing winds. At its tallest point, the tower sways a total of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).[43]
To support the unprecedented height of the building, the engineers developed a new structural system called the buttressed core, which consists of a hexagonal core reinforced by three buttresses that form the ‘Y' shape. This structural system enables the building to support itself laterally and keeps it from twisting.[24]
The spire of Burj Khalifa is composed of more than 4,000 tonnes (4,400 ST; 3,900 LT) of structural steel. The central pinnacle pipe weighing 350 tonnes (390 ST; 340 LT) was constructed from inside the building and jacked to its full height of over 200 m (660 ft) using a strand jack system. The spire also houses communications equipment.[44]
More than 1,000 pieces of art will adorn the interiors of Burj Khalifa, while the residential lobby of Burj Khalifa will display the work of Jaume Plensa, featuring 196 bronze and brass alloy cymbals representing the 196 countries of the world.[45] The visitors in this lobby will be able to hear a distinct timbre as the cymbals, plated with 18-carat gold, are struck by dripping water, intended to mimic the sound of water falling on leaves.[46]
The exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa consists of 142,000 m2 (1,528,000 sq ft) of reflective glazing, and aluminium and textured stainless steel spandrel panels with vertical tubular fins. The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer temperatures. Additionally, the exterior temperature at the top of the building is thought to be 6°C (11°F) cooler than at its base.[47] Over 26,000 glass panels were used in the exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa. Over 300 cladding specialists from China were brought in for the cladding work on the tower.[44]
A 304 room Armani Hotel, the first of four by Armani, occupies 15 of the lower 39 floors.[48][2] The hotel was supposed to open on 18 March 2010[49][50] but after several delays the hotel finally opened the public on 27 April 2010.[51] The corporate suites and offices were also supposed to open from March onwards[52] but the hotel and observation deck remain the only parts of the building which are open.
The sky lobbies on the 43rd and 76th floors will house swimming pools.[53] Floors through to 108 will have 900 private residential apartments (which, according to the developer, sold out within eight hours of being on the market). An outdoor zero-entry swimming pool will be located on the 76th floor of the tower. Corporate offices and suites fill most of the remaining floors, except for a 122nd, 123rd and 124th floor where the At.mosphere restaurant, sky lobby and an indoor and outdoor observation deck is located respectively. Burj Khalifa will receive its first residents from February 2010. They will be among the first of 25,000 people who will live there.[53][54]
Burj Khalifa is expected to hold up to 35,000 people at any one time.[24][55] A total of 57 elevators and 8 escalators are installed.[44] The elevators have a capacity of 12 to 14 people per cabin, the fastest rising and descending at up to 18 m/s (59 ft/s).[24][56] Engineers had considered installing the world's first triple-deck elevators, but the final design calls for double-deck elevators.[27] The double-deck elevators are equipped with entertainment features such as LCD displays to serve visitors during their travel to the observation deck.[57] The building has 2,909 stairs from the ground floor to the 160th floor.[58]
The graphic design identity work for Burj Khalifa is the responsibility of Brash Brands, who are based in Dubai. Design of the global launch events, communications, and visitors centers[59] for Burj Khalifa have also been created by Brash Brands as well as the roadshow exhibition for the Armani Residences, which are part of the Armani Hotel within Burj Khalifa, which toured Milan, London, Jeddah, Moscow and Delhi
Water supply system
The Burj Khalifa's water system supplies an average of 946,000 l (250,000 USgal) of water per day.[24]
At the peak cooling times, the tower requires cooling equivalent to that provided by 10,000 t (22,000,000 lb) of melting ice in one day. The building has a condensate collection system, which uses the hot and humid outside air, combined with the cooling requirements of the building and results in a significant amount of condensation of moisture from the air. The condensed water is collected and drained into a holding tank located in the basement car park, this water is then pumped into the site irrigation system for use on the Burj Khalifa park
Maintenance
To wash the 24,348 windows, a horizontal track has been installed on the exterior of Burj Khalifa at levels 40, 73 and 109. Each track holds a 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) bucket machine which moves horizontally and then vertically using heavy cables. Above level 109, up to tier 27 traditional cradles from davits are used. The top of the spire, however, is reserved for specialist window cleaners, who brave the heights and high winds dangling by ropes to clean and inspect the top of the pinnacle.[61] Under normal conditions, when all building maintenance units will be operational, it will take 36 workers three to four months to clean the entire exterior facade.[44][62]
Unmanned machines will clean the top 27 additional tiers and the glass spire. The cleaning system was developed in Melbourne, Australia at a cost of A$8 million
Subsequent to the original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Emaar Properties chose Hyder Consulting to be the supervising engineer.[39] Hyder was selected for its expertise in structural and MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) engineering.[40] Hyder Consulting's role was to supervise construction, certify SOM's design, and be the engineer and architect of record to the UAE authorities.[39] Emaar Properties also engaged GHD,[41] an international multidisciplinary consulting firm, to act as an independent verification and testing authority for concrete and steelwork.
The design of Burj Khalifa is derived from patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture.[24] According to the structural engineer, Bill Baker of SOM, the building's design incorporates cultural and historical elements particular to the region. The Y-shaped plan is ideal for residential and hotel usage, with the wings allowing maximum outward views and inward natural light.[24] The design architect, Adrian Smith, has said the triple-lobed footprint of the building was inspired by the flower Hymenocallis.[42] The tower is composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the tower rises from the flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiralling pattern, decreasing the cross section of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. There are 27 terraces in Burj Khalifa. At the top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan maximizes views of the Persian Gulf. Viewed from above or from the base, the form also evokes the onion domes of Islamic architecture. During the design process, engineers rotated the building 120 degrees from its original layout to reduce stress from prevailing winds. At its tallest point, the tower sways a total of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).[43]
To support the unprecedented height of the building, the engineers developed a new structural system called the buttressed core, which consists of a hexagonal core reinforced by three buttresses that form the ‘Y' shape. This structural system enables the building to support itself laterally and keeps it from twisting.[24]
The spire of Burj Khalifa is composed of more than 4,000 tonnes (4,400 ST; 3,900 LT) of structural steel. The central pinnacle pipe weighing 350 tonnes (390 ST; 340 LT) was constructed from inside the building and jacked to its full height of over 200 m (660 ft) using a strand jack system. The spire also houses communications equipment.[44]
More than 1,000 pieces of art will adorn the interiors of Burj Khalifa, while the residential lobby of Burj Khalifa will display the work of Jaume Plensa, featuring 196 bronze and brass alloy cymbals representing the 196 countries of the world.[45] The visitors in this lobby will be able to hear a distinct timbre as the cymbals, plated with 18-carat gold, are struck by dripping water, intended to mimic the sound of water falling on leaves.[46]
The exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa consists of 142,000 m2 (1,528,000 sq ft) of reflective glazing, and aluminium and textured stainless steel spandrel panels with vertical tubular fins. The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer temperatures. Additionally, the exterior temperature at the top of the building is thought to be 6°C (11°F) cooler than at its base.[47] Over 26,000 glass panels were used in the exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa. Over 300 cladding specialists from China were brought in for the cladding work on the tower.[44]
A 304 room Armani Hotel, the first of four by Armani, occupies 15 of the lower 39 floors.[48][2] The hotel was supposed to open on 18 March 2010[49][50] but after several delays the hotel finally opened the public on 27 April 2010.[51] The corporate suites and offices were also supposed to open from March onwards[52] but the hotel and observation deck remain the only parts of the building which are open.
The sky lobbies on the 43rd and 76th floors will house swimming pools.[53] Floors through to 108 will have 900 private residential apartments (which, according to the developer, sold out within eight hours of being on the market). An outdoor zero-entry swimming pool will be located on the 76th floor of the tower. Corporate offices and suites fill most of the remaining floors, except for a 122nd, 123rd and 124th floor where the At.mosphere restaurant, sky lobby and an indoor and outdoor observation deck is located respectively. Burj Khalifa will receive its first residents from February 2010. They will be among the first of 25,000 people who will live there.[53][54]
Burj Khalifa is expected to hold up to 35,000 people at any one time.[24][55] A total of 57 elevators and 8 escalators are installed.[44] The elevators have a capacity of 12 to 14 people per cabin, the fastest rising and descending at up to 18 m/s (59 ft/s).[24][56] Engineers had considered installing the world's first triple-deck elevators, but the final design calls for double-deck elevators.[27] The double-deck elevators are equipped with entertainment features such as LCD displays to serve visitors during their travel to the observation deck.[57] The building has 2,909 stairs from the ground floor to the 160th floor.[58]
The graphic design identity work for Burj Khalifa is the responsibility of Brash Brands, who are based in Dubai. Design of the global launch events, communications, and visitors centers[59] for Burj Khalifa have also been created by Brash Brands as well as the roadshow exhibition for the Armani Residences, which are part of the Armani Hotel within Burj Khalifa, which toured Milan, London, Jeddah, Moscow and Delhi
Water supply system
The Burj Khalifa's water system supplies an average of 946,000 l (250,000 USgal) of water per day.[24]
At the peak cooling times, the tower requires cooling equivalent to that provided by 10,000 t (22,000,000 lb) of melting ice in one day. The building has a condensate collection system, which uses the hot and humid outside air, combined with the cooling requirements of the building and results in a significant amount of condensation of moisture from the air. The condensed water is collected and drained into a holding tank located in the basement car park, this water is then pumped into the site irrigation system for use on the Burj Khalifa park
Maintenance
To wash the 24,348 windows, a horizontal track has been installed on the exterior of Burj Khalifa at levels 40, 73 and 109. Each track holds a 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) bucket machine which moves horizontally and then vertically using heavy cables. Above level 109, up to tier 27 traditional cradles from davits are used. The top of the spire, however, is reserved for specialist window cleaners, who brave the heights and high winds dangling by ropes to clean and inspect the top of the pinnacle.[61] Under normal conditions, when all building maintenance units will be operational, it will take 36 workers three to four months to clean the entire exterior facade.[44][62]
Unmanned machines will clean the top 27 additional tiers and the glass spire. The cleaning system was developed in Melbourne, Australia at a cost of A$8 million
Height
Current records
Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)
Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)
Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)
Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)
Building with most floors: 160 (previously Willis Tower – 108)[22]
Building with highest occupied floor in the world: 160th floor[23]
World's highest elevator installation, situated inside a rod at the very top of the building[24][25]
World's fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)[25] (previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)[26] (previously Taipei 101 – 449.2 m/1,474 ft)
The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space[27]
Highest outdoor observation deck in the world (124th floor) at 452 m (1,483 ft)[28][29]
World's highest mosque (located on the 158th floor)[30][31]
World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft)[32]
World's highest swimming pool (76th floor)[30]
History of height increases
Burj Khalifa compared to some other well-known tall structures
There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft) Grollo Tower proposal for Melbourne, Australia's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM).[33] Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,651 ft) tall.[34]
The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current height.[citation needed] It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender.
Delay
Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded finishes and would be completed only in September 2009.[36] An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."[37] A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was then announced.[38] However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010
Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)
Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)
Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)
Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)
Building with most floors: 160 (previously Willis Tower – 108)[22]
Building with highest occupied floor in the world: 160th floor[23]
World's highest elevator installation, situated inside a rod at the very top of the building[24][25]
World's fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)[25] (previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)[26] (previously Taipei 101 – 449.2 m/1,474 ft)
The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space[27]
Highest outdoor observation deck in the world (124th floor) at 452 m (1,483 ft)[28][29]
World's highest mosque (located on the 158th floor)[30][31]
World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft)[32]
World's highest swimming pool (76th floor)[30]
History of height increases
Burj Khalifa compared to some other well-known tall structures
There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft) Grollo Tower proposal for Melbourne, Australia's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM).[33] Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,651 ft) tall.[34]
The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current height.[citation needed] It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender.
Delay
Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded finishes and would be completed only in September 2009.[36] An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."[37] A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was then announced.[38] However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010
Height
Current records
Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)
Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)
Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)
Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)
Building with most floors: 160 (previously Willis Tower – 108)[22]
Building with highest occupied floor in the world: 160th floor[23]
World's highest elevator installation, situated inside a rod at the very top of the building[24][25]
World's fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)[25] (previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)[26] (previously Taipei 101 – 449.2 m/1,474 ft)
The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space[27]
Highest outdoor observation deck in the world (124th floor) at 452 m (1,483 ft)[28][29]
World's highest mosque (located on the 158th floor)[30][31]
World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft)[32]
World's highest swimming pool (76th floor)
Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)
Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)
Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)
Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)
Building with most floors: 160 (previously Willis Tower – 108)[22]
Building with highest occupied floor in the world: 160th floor[23]
World's highest elevator installation, situated inside a rod at the very top of the building[24][25]
World's fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s)[25] (previously Taipei 101 – 16.83 m/s)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)[26] (previously Taipei 101 – 449.2 m/1,474 ft)
The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space[27]
Highest outdoor observation deck in the world (124th floor) at 452 m (1,483 ft)[28][29]
World's highest mosque (located on the 158th floor)[30][31]
World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft)[32]
World's highest swimming pool (76th floor)
History of height increases
Burj Khalifa compared to some other well-known tall structures
There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft) Grollo Tower proposal for Melbourne, Australia's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM).[33] Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,651 ft) tall.[34]
The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current height.[citation needed] It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender.
Burj Khalifa compared to some other well-known tall structures
There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft) Grollo Tower proposal for Melbourne, Australia's Docklands waterfront development, the tower was redesigned by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM).[33] Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,651 ft) tall.[34]
The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current height.[citation needed] It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender.
Delay
Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded finishes and would be completed only in September 2009.[36] An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."[37] A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was then announced.[38] However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010.
Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded finishes and would be completed only in September 2009.[36] An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more aesthetically attractive and functionally superior."[37] A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was then announced.[38] However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010.
Burj Khalifa
Burj Khalifa (Arabic: برج خليفة "Khalifa Tower"),[8] known as Burj Dubai prior to its inauguration, is a skyscraper in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and the tallest man-made structure ever built, at 828 m (2,717 ft).[8] Construction began on 21 September 2004, with the exterior of the structure completed on 1 October 2009. The building officially opened on 4 January 2010,[1][9] and is part of the new 2 km2 (490-acre) flagship development called Downtown Dubai at the 'First Interchange' along Sheikh Zayed Road, near Dubai's main business district.
The tower's architecture and engineering were performed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill of Chicago, with Adrian Smith (now at his own firm) as chief architect, and Bill Baker as chief structural engineer.[10][11] The primary contractor was Samsung C&T of South Korea.[12] In June 2010, Burj Khalifa was the recipient of the 2010 Best Tall Building Middle East & Africa award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.[13] On 28 September, 2010 Burj Khalifa won the award for best project of year at the Middle East Architect Awards 2010.[14]
The total cost for the project was about US$1.5 billion; and for the entire "Downtown Dubai" development, US$20 billion.[15] In March 2009, Mohamed Ali Alabbar, chairman of the project's developer, Emaar Properties, said office space pricing at Burj Khalifa reached US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m2) and the Armani Residences, also in Burj Khalifa, sold for US$3,500 per sq ft (over US$37,500 per m2).[16]
The project's completion coincided with the global financial crisis of 2007–2010, and with vast overbuilding in the country, led to high vacancies and foreclosures.[17] With Dubai mired in debt from its huge ambitions, the government was forced to seek multi-billion dollar bailouts from its oil-rich neighbor Abu Dhabi. Subsequently, in a surprise move at its opening ceremony, the tower was renamed Burj Khalifa, said to honor the UAE President, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan for his crucial support.[18]
Due to the slumping demand in Dubai's property market, the rents in the Burj Khalifa plummeted 40% some ten months after its opening. Out of 900 apartments in the tower 825 were still empty at that time
The tower's architecture and engineering were performed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill of Chicago, with Adrian Smith (now at his own firm) as chief architect, and Bill Baker as chief structural engineer.[10][11] The primary contractor was Samsung C&T of South Korea.[12] In June 2010, Burj Khalifa was the recipient of the 2010 Best Tall Building Middle East & Africa award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.[13] On 28 September, 2010 Burj Khalifa won the award for best project of year at the Middle East Architect Awards 2010.[14]
The total cost for the project was about US$1.5 billion; and for the entire "Downtown Dubai" development, US$20 billion.[15] In March 2009, Mohamed Ali Alabbar, chairman of the project's developer, Emaar Properties, said office space pricing at Burj Khalifa reached US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m2) and the Armani Residences, also in Burj Khalifa, sold for US$3,500 per sq ft (over US$37,500 per m2).[16]
The project's completion coincided with the global financial crisis of 2007–2010, and with vast overbuilding in the country, led to high vacancies and foreclosures.[17] With Dubai mired in debt from its huge ambitions, the government was forced to seek multi-billion dollar bailouts from its oil-rich neighbor Abu Dhabi. Subsequently, in a surprise move at its opening ceremony, the tower was renamed Burj Khalifa, said to honor the UAE President, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan for his crucial support.[18]
Due to the slumping demand in Dubai's property market, the rents in the Burj Khalifa plummeted 40% some ten months after its opening. Out of 900 apartments in the tower 825 were still empty at that time
Non-human senses
Analogous to human senses
Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely.
Echolocation
Certain animals, including bats and cetaceans, have the ability to determine orientation to other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like sonar). They most often use this to navigate through poor lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. There is currently an uncertainty whether this is simply an extremely developed post-sensory interpretation of auditory perceptions or it actually constitutes a separate sense. Resolution of the issue will require brain scans of animals while they actually perform echolocation, a task that has proven difficult in practice. Blind people report they are able to navigate by interpreting reflected sounds (esp. their own footsteps), a phenomenon which is known as human echolocation.
Smell
Most non-human mammals have a much keener sense of smell than humans, although the mechanism is similar. Sharks combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine the direction of a smell. They follow the nostril that first detected the smell.[13]Insects have olfactory receptors on their antennae.
vomeronasal organ
Many animals (salamanders, reptiles, mammals) have a vomeronasal organ that is connected with the mouth cavity. In mammals it is mainly used to detect pheromones to mark their territory, trails, and sexual state. Reptiles like snakes and monitor lizards make extensive use of it as a smelling organ [14], transferring scent molecules to the vomeronasal organ with the tips of the forked tongue. In mammals it is often associated with a special behavior called flehmen characterized by uplifting of the lips. The organ is vestigial in humans, because associated neurons have not been found that give any sensory input in humans.
Vision
Cats have the ability to see in low light due to muscles surrounding their irises to contract and expand pupils as well as the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image. Pitvipers, pythons and some boas have organs that allow them to detect infrared light, such that these snakes are able to sense the body heat of their prey. The common vampire bat may also have an infrared sensor on its nose.[15] It has been found that birds and some other animals are tetrachromats and have the ability to see in the ultraviolet down to 300 nanometers. Bees and dragonflies[16] are also able to see in the ultraviolet.
Balance
Ctenophora have a balance receptor (a statocyst) that works very differently from the mammalian's semi-circular canals.
Not analogous to human senses
In addition, some animals have senses that humans do not, including the following:
Electroreception (or electroception) is the ability to detect electric fields. Several species of fish, sharks and rays have the capacity to sense changes in electric fields in their immediate vicinity. Some fish passively sense changing nearby electric fields; some generate their own weak electric fields, and sense the pattern of field potentials over their body surface; and some use these electric field generating and sensing capacities for social communication. The mechanisms by which electroceptive fish construct a spatial representation from very small differences in field potentials involve comparisons of spike latencies from different parts of the fish's body.
The only order of mammals that is known to demonstrate electroception is the monotreme order. Among these mammals, the platypus[17] has the most acute sense of electroception.
Body modification enthusiasts have experimented with magnetic implants to attempt to replicate this sense,[18] however in general humans (and probably other mammals) can detect electric fields only indirectly by detecting the effect they have on hairs. An electrically charged balloon, for instance, will exert a force on human arm hairs, which can be felt through tactition and identified as coming from a static charge (and not from wind or the like). This is however not electroception as it is a post-sensory cognitive action.
Magnetoreception (or magnetoception) is the ability to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or location. This sense plays a role in the navigational abilities of several animal species and has been postulated as a method for animals to develop regional maps.
Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the gas bladder to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the weather fish and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.
Current detection The lateral line in fish and aquatic forms of amphibians is a detection system of water currents, mostly consisting of vortices. The lateral line is also sensitive to low frequency vibrations. The mechanoreceptors are hair cells, the same mechanoreceptors for vestibular sense and hearing. It is used primarily for navigation, hunting, and schooling. The receptors of the electrical sense are modified hair cells of the lateral line system.
Polarized light direction/detection is used by bees to orient themselves, especially on cloudy days. Cuttlefish can also perceive the polarization of light. Most sighted humans can in fact learn to roughly detect large areas of polarization by an effect called Haidinger's brush, however this is considered an entoptic phenomenon rather than a separate sense.
Slit sensillae of spiders detect mechanical strain in the exoskeleton, providing information on force and vibrations.
Plant senses
Some plants have sensory organs, for example the Venus fly trap, that respond to vibration, light, water, scents, or other specific chemicals. Some plants sense the location of other plants and attack and eat part of them
Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely.
Echolocation
Certain animals, including bats and cetaceans, have the ability to determine orientation to other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like sonar). They most often use this to navigate through poor lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. There is currently an uncertainty whether this is simply an extremely developed post-sensory interpretation of auditory perceptions or it actually constitutes a separate sense. Resolution of the issue will require brain scans of animals while they actually perform echolocation, a task that has proven difficult in practice. Blind people report they are able to navigate by interpreting reflected sounds (esp. their own footsteps), a phenomenon which is known as human echolocation.
Smell
Most non-human mammals have a much keener sense of smell than humans, although the mechanism is similar. Sharks combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine the direction of a smell. They follow the nostril that first detected the smell.[13]Insects have olfactory receptors on their antennae.
vomeronasal organ
Many animals (salamanders, reptiles, mammals) have a vomeronasal organ that is connected with the mouth cavity. In mammals it is mainly used to detect pheromones to mark their territory, trails, and sexual state. Reptiles like snakes and monitor lizards make extensive use of it as a smelling organ [14], transferring scent molecules to the vomeronasal organ with the tips of the forked tongue. In mammals it is often associated with a special behavior called flehmen characterized by uplifting of the lips. The organ is vestigial in humans, because associated neurons have not been found that give any sensory input in humans.
Vision
Cats have the ability to see in low light due to muscles surrounding their irises to contract and expand pupils as well as the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image. Pitvipers, pythons and some boas have organs that allow them to detect infrared light, such that these snakes are able to sense the body heat of their prey. The common vampire bat may also have an infrared sensor on its nose.[15] It has been found that birds and some other animals are tetrachromats and have the ability to see in the ultraviolet down to 300 nanometers. Bees and dragonflies[16] are also able to see in the ultraviolet.
Balance
Ctenophora have a balance receptor (a statocyst) that works very differently from the mammalian's semi-circular canals.
Not analogous to human senses
In addition, some animals have senses that humans do not, including the following:
Electroreception (or electroception) is the ability to detect electric fields. Several species of fish, sharks and rays have the capacity to sense changes in electric fields in their immediate vicinity. Some fish passively sense changing nearby electric fields; some generate their own weak electric fields, and sense the pattern of field potentials over their body surface; and some use these electric field generating and sensing capacities for social communication. The mechanisms by which electroceptive fish construct a spatial representation from very small differences in field potentials involve comparisons of spike latencies from different parts of the fish's body.
The only order of mammals that is known to demonstrate electroception is the monotreme order. Among these mammals, the platypus[17] has the most acute sense of electroception.
Body modification enthusiasts have experimented with magnetic implants to attempt to replicate this sense,[18] however in general humans (and probably other mammals) can detect electric fields only indirectly by detecting the effect they have on hairs. An electrically charged balloon, for instance, will exert a force on human arm hairs, which can be felt through tactition and identified as coming from a static charge (and not from wind or the like). This is however not electroception as it is a post-sensory cognitive action.
Magnetoreception (or magnetoception) is the ability to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or location. This sense plays a role in the navigational abilities of several animal species and has been postulated as a method for animals to develop regional maps.
Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the gas bladder to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the weather fish and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.
Current detection The lateral line in fish and aquatic forms of amphibians is a detection system of water currents, mostly consisting of vortices. The lateral line is also sensitive to low frequency vibrations. The mechanoreceptors are hair cells, the same mechanoreceptors for vestibular sense and hearing. It is used primarily for navigation, hunting, and schooling. The receptors of the electrical sense are modified hair cells of the lateral line system.
Polarized light direction/detection is used by bees to orient themselves, especially on cloudy days. Cuttlefish can also perceive the polarization of light. Most sighted humans can in fact learn to roughly detect large areas of polarization by an effect called Haidinger's brush, however this is considered an entoptic phenomenon rather than a separate sense.
Slit sensillae of spiders detect mechanical strain in the exoskeleton, providing information on force and vibrations.
Plant senses
Some plants have sensory organs, for example the Venus fly trap, that respond to vibration, light, water, scents, or other specific chemicals. Some plants sense the location of other plants and attack and eat part of them
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