Crown glass (window)

Crown glass was an early type of window glass. In this process, glass was blown into a "crown" or hollow globe. This was then transferred from the blowpipe to a pontil and then flattened by reheating and spinning out the bowl-shaped piece of glass (bullion) into a flat disk by centrifugal force, up to 5 or 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 metres) in diameter. The glass was then cut to the size required.[1]
The thinnest glass was in a band at the edge of the disk, with the glass becoming thicker and more opaque toward the center.
Due to the distribution of the best glass, in order to fill large window spaces many small diamond shapes would be cut from the edge of the disk and these would be mounted into a lead lattice work and fitted in the window. Known as a bullseye, the thicker center area around the pontil mark was used for less expensive windows.
Crown glass was one of the two most common processes for making glass for windows up until the 19th century. The other was blown plate. The process was first perfected by French glassmakers in the 1320s, notably around Rouen. The process was kept a careful trade secret. As a result, crown glass was not made in London until 1678.
Crown glass is one of many types of hand-blown glass. Other methods include: broad sheet, blown plate, polished plate and cylinder blown sheet. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century. The early 20th century marks the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate, machine drawn cylinder sheet, flat drawn sheet, single and twin ground polished plate and float glass.[2]

The design of Holkham Hall

When the idea of rebuilding Holkham first occurred is not known. It may have been during his grand tour that the idea first emerged, Coke had met William Kent in early 1714 and then Richard Boyle the 3rd Earl of Burlington later that same year. Later they went travelling through Italy and experienced Andrea Palladio's architecture first hand, particularly his villas in the Veneto. Palladio's I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (The Four Books of Architecture) sets out the theories that underlie his designs and includes an extensive series of woodcut illustrations. These villas formed the basis of the design, though reinterpreted as the centre of an English country estate rather than a summer retreat from Venice, that included working farm buildings. Where as in a Palladio villa the family would have lived in the Corp de Logis the wings being reserved for agricultural use, at Holkham the State Rooms housing the finest works of art occupy the centre of the House the wings being used for daily life and service functions. In 1773 Matthew Brettingham the younger published a new edition of his father's book The Plans, Elevations and Sections of Holkham with additional text in which it is stated that the concept of a central corp de logis with wings was taken from Palladio's unfinished Villa of Trissino at Meledo but that another of the architect's unbuilt designs Villa Mocenigo on the Brenta was the model for four wings. Brettingham also stated that Lord Leicester found the design with curved colonnades wasteful and adopted the current short corridor links. One of the subjects covered in Palladio's writings are the ratios of room dimensions, this is seen in the House where the ratios of 1:1 occur in the Landscape room and the North Dining room both square, 3:1 is seen in the Long Library, 2:3 in the South Dining room and Drawing Room, 3:4 in Lady Leicester's Sitting Room and the Venetian Room and 1:1.41 (the square root of two) in the Saloon.
There were several major influences on the interior decoration of the house including Inigo Jones's designs. Burlington had purchased Jones's surviving architectural drawings in 1720. These were then published in 1727 in the two folio volumes of The Designs of Inigo Jones by William Kent. Ceilings divided up by deep plaster beams that are found throughout Holkham are in the style of Jones, who designed ceilings like these for the Queen's House. Other features showing the influence of Jones's designs include many of the door surrounds, fireplaces such as those in the Drawing Room that are massively sculptural and the decorative niche above the Statue Gallery fireplace.
Antoine Desgodetz's publication Les edifices antiques de Rome dessinés et mesurés très exactement (Paris 1682) with its engravings of the monuments and antiquities of Rome, provided suitable architectural details based on illustrations in this book for rooms including: The Marble Hall the columns of which are based on those of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis the coffering is based on the Pantheon, The Statue Gallery exedra are based on those at the Temple of Venus and Roma, in the Saloon the coffering of the cove is copied from the Basilica of Maxentius and the ceiling freize in the Drawing Room is from the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Daniele Barbaro's translation with extended commentary of the De architectura (Ten books of Architecture) by Vitruvius,[1] contains a woodcut interpretation of a plan of Vitruvius's Roman House and was in part the inspiration for the Marble Hall, especially the atrium which is shown flanked by six columns and with a coffered ceiling. Matthew Brettingham the younger stated that the concept for the Marble Hall was Lord Leicester's, inspired by "Palladio's example of a Basilica, or tribual of justice, exhibited in his designs for Monsignor Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius".
Between 1725-1731 William Kent had been at work designing interiors at nearby Houghton Hall, prior to the building of Holkham this was the grandest Palladian style house in Britain and was also built to house an extensive collection of paintings. The earliest surviving elevations and plans for Holkham are preserved in the British Library and date from the 1720s, for which a payment of 10 guineas was made to Matthew Brettingham the Elder in 1726, these show a house heavily influenced by Houghton, but without any wings, the Marble Hall is as designed by Kent prior to the changes of 1755, plus the Statue Gallery is in a form close to that built. The first design to show the four wings is by Kent dated 1728. An influence on the finished House is Chiswick House designed by Lord Burlington and with interiors by William Kent, the gallery being the basis of the design of the Statue Gallery at Holkham.
[edit] Influence of the design
The building most influenced by Holkham is Kedleston Hall, the first architect of which was Matthew Brettingham the Elder, who probably designed the entrance hall, the house was to have four wings, though only the two northern were built. The portico leads to grand entrance hall with its 25 feet (7.6 m) high alabaster Corinthian columns. The interiors at Holkham were the culmination of designs based on Roman public buildings and temples, even before they were completed they were old fashioned. Robert Adam had returned from his grand tour in 1758. His interiors are some of the earliest Neo-classical designs influenced by the newly discovered Roman domestic interiors at Pompeii which are all together lighter in style. He designed the state rooms at Kedleston and lightened the design of the entrance hall. This was the future of domestic design, the grand style of Holkham would never be repeated in a British House. Although Palladio would remain a major influence in British architecture, never again would a great house be built that was so closely influenced by the Italian's designs and theories.

Art collections of Holkham Hall Collections

Uniquely the house was designed around the art collection acquired (a few works were commissioned) by Thomas Coke 1st Earl of Leicester during his Grand Tour of Italy during 1712–18. To complete the scheme it was necessary to send Matthew Brettingham the younger to Rome between 1747–54 to purchase further works of art.
The design of the house was a collaborative effort between Thomas Coke, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and William Kent, with Matthew Brettingham the elder acting as the on site architect. The house was built between 1736–1764, with work on the interiors only completed in 1771. By 1769 all the men had died, this left Thomas's widow, Lady Margaret Tufton, Countess of Leicester, (1700–1775) to oversee the completion of the House, their only child to survive infancy, Lord Edward had died without issue in 1753.
The house is designed with a corps de logis containing the state rooms on the first floor piano nobile, surrounded by four wings: to the south-west the family wing, to the north-west the guest wing, to south-east the chapel wing and to the north-east the kitchen wing. With all the intervening doors open it is possible to stand in the Long Library and look down the full length of the southern State Rooms and see the east window of the Chapel in the opposing wing the full 344 feet (105 m) length of the House. The family wing is a self contained residence, meant for daily living.
The Marble Hall is in the centre of the north front, to its west is the North Dining Room (also called the State Dining Room), then along the west side of the corps de logis is the Statue Gallery, to its east on the south front is the Drawing Room, then the Saloon, South Dining Room, Landscape Room north of which on the east side of the corps de logis is the Green State Bedroom, Green State Dressing Room, North State Dressing Room, The North State Bedroom, and finally to the west the State Sitting Room with the Marble Hall to its west.
Much thought went into the placing of sculptures and paintings, involving subtle connections and contrasts in the mythological and historical characters and stories depicted. The state rooms were designed with symmetrical arrangements of doors, windows and fireplaces, this meant that some walls have false doors to balance real doors. This need for balance and harmony extended to the placing of sculpture, paintings and furniture. Each art work being balanced by a piece of similar size though sometimes of contrasting subject matter. Examples are the two paintings commissioned by Thomas Coke above the fireplaces in the Saloon, Tarquin Raping Lucretia & Perseus and Andromeda, in the first painting a man the last king of Rome is violating a woman, in the second painting a man is rescuing a woman from being killed. The result of the rape of Lucretia is the overthrow of a Tyrant, the rescue of Andromeda results in Perseus becoming a king. Other connections are the sculptures in the two Exedras of the Statue Gallery, in the southern are two satyrs, symbols of ungoverned passion and lust, opposite are Athena virgin, goddess of wisdom and Ceres the preserver of marriage and sacred law. In the Landscape Room it is possible to go from looking at the paintings to looking through the window at a real Landscape garden, one influenced by the images on the walls.
The works collected in Italy include: sculpture, paintings, mosaics, books, manuscripts and old master drawings (most of which have been sold). The books included one of Leonardo da Vinci's note books now known as the Codex Leicester which was sold from the collection in 1980.
Sculpture
The collection of 60 Ancient Roman marble sculptures is amongst the finest in any private collection in the world. The collection consists of both life size and greater than life size statues and busts that include, several of the Twelve Olympians, characters from Greek mythology, ancient Greek philosophers and ancient Romans of the imperial era, plus other sculptures. Most have been repaired to varying extents. The full length statues are mainly displayed in the Statue Gallery along with busts which are also to be found through out the State Rooms.
Matthew Brettingham the Younger dispatched the first consignment of sculptures from Rome in 1749, due to the difficulty in getting permission from the Papal authorities to export the sculpture of Isis the second consignment was not dispatched until 1751. After which sculptures were export annually until the last shipment in the summer of 1754.
Among the finest of the works are:
The bust of Thucydides dated 100-120 A.D., of Carrara marble 79.5 cm high, purchased by Matthew Brettingham. With only minor repairs this is one of the finest busts of the era to survive. This powerful characterisation presents the historian in late middle age with a strong-boned squarish face with a high broad forehead. Receding temples and bald patch. There are three furrows on the brow make this a convincing portrait.
The goddess Artemis/Diana dated to 190-200 AD, this is believed to be a copy of a mid 4th century B.C. Hellenistic original, with only minor repairs. Purchase in Rome by Thomas Coke on 13 April 1717 for 900 crowns (about £250) Thomas's most expensive purchase. The marble statue is 1.86 metres high, shown wearing a peplos, holding a bow in the left hand, the right hand is reaching for an arrow held in a quiver on the sculpture's back.
Marsyas dated to 180-190 AD, probably a copy of a 2nd century B.C. Greek statue. Originally owned by Cardinal Annibale Albani it was purchased by Matthew Brettingham. The marble statue is 2.01 metres in height. The bearded figure is naked, left elbow leaning on a tree stump, in a contrapposto stance, there is a lion skin knotted across its chest and hanging down the back. The right arm is bent upwards holding a cudgel.
The Empress Livia dated mid-1st century A.D., purchased for 300 crowns by Matthew Brettingham. Made from Parian marble 2.23 metres in height, the statue is contrapposto, dressed in a floor length chiton girt under the breasts, forming an apoptygma or overfold, with short sleeves. A cloak is pulled to the crown of the head and envelopes the lower body, crossing the left shoulder and drawn across the front of the body and is draped over the left forearm. In the left hand is held a bunch of wheat ears.
The god Poseidon/Neptune dated late 1st to early 2nd centuries A.D. is thought to be a copy of a Greek sculpture of the 1st half of the 2nd century B.C., purchased in Rome in 1752 by Matthew Brettingham for 800 crowns. Made from Parian marble, it is 1.73 metres high, the god is depicted naked, standing, the left leg is slightly bent and drawn back resting on the ball of the foot, the left hand holds onto a trident resting on the ground, the right arm is raised slightly. The head has thick curly hair and a beard.
Sculptures marked with an * were purchased by Thomas Coke on his Grand Tour, any marked # were purchased by Matthew Brettingham the younger.
The Roman statues include:
The Statue Gallery: the southern exedra: Satyrs one playing a flute# & one wearing a pigskin#, south of the fireplace: Meleager#, Marsyas# & Poseidon/Neptune#, above the fireplace: Apollo*, north of the fireplace: Dionysus/Bacchus#, Artemis/Diana* & Aphrodite/Venus#, the northern exedra: Athena/Minerva# and Demeter/Ceres#.
The North Tribune: Isis# repaired with a head from another statue, Livia#, statue repaired with a head of Lucius Verus* & unidentified man wearing a toga (purchased as Lucius Antonius)*.
The Marble Hall: in the niches of the apse: A statue repaired with a head of Septimus Severus# & a heavily restored statue of Julia Mamaea* with in the niches of the exedra an Ephebos restored as a Satyr# & a heavily restored Satyr playing cymbals*.
Private Rooms: Tyche/Fortuna# (purchased as Isis) and a torso of a draped male (purchased as Jupiter*, it was this statue that William Kent intended to restore and place in the centre of the stairs in the Marble Hall, thus placing the main god of Olympus at the literal centre of the House).
The Roman busts include depictions/portraits of:
The Marble Hall: On a half-column outside the door to the State Sitting Room is the bust of Roma dated 130-140 A.D., the head is of white marble mounted on a Post-Roman body of Rosso Antico marble (probably purchased in Rome by Edward Coke in 1737).
The Statue Gallery: Cybele* in the pediment above Apollo, flanking the northern exedra Lucius Cornelius Sulla# & Thucydides#, flanking the southern exedra Lucius Junius Brutus# & Pseudo-Seneca#, between the windows an unidentified man# and a woman# (these last two are not part of Thomas Coke's arrangement of the sculptures).
The North Tribune: Above the doors, Emperor Philip as a youth# & Faustina the Elder#.
The South Tribune: Above the doors and bookcases, Hadrian#, Julia Mamaea#, Julia di Tito#, Caesar Marcus Aurelius*, Gallienus# & Geta#.
The North Dining Room: In oval niches above the fireplaces Aelius Verus# & Juno#, flanking the apse Marcus Aurelius# & Caesar Geta#, these last two busts have white marble heads mounted on Post-Rome bodies of variegated marble.
The Saloon: Above the central door Hera/Juno#.
Private Rooms: Zeus/Jupiter*, Artemis (acquired c1737 origin unknown), Salonina#, Nerva*, Plato#, Caracalla#, Gordian III#, Maecenas# & a badly eroded male head possibly Greek, c400 B.C. acquired by the 5th Earl in 1955.
Other Roman sculptures include:
The Statue Gallery: Between Apollo and the fireplace an oval white marble relief of Julius Caesar# in profile, it is enclosed in an 18th century dark veined marble frame.
The South Vestibule: Flanking the north door, the Ash Altar of Caius Calpurnius Cognitus* 1st quarter of 1st century A.D. & the Cinerarium of Petronius Hedychrus* 1st quarter 2nd century A.D..
Private Rooms: Profile relief of Carneades#, A statuette of the Nile river god#, Sarcophagus of T. Flabius Hermetes#, Marble Oscillum# depicting a cavorting satyr, A Herma# & fragments of a sarcophagus decorated with sea-creatures*.
There are several sculptures dating from the Post-Roman era:
The Marble Hall: contains a series of plaster casts of eight sculptures, in the niches of the east wall: Apollo, Flora, Bacchus, Isis, in the niches of the west wall: Aphrodite, Hermes, St. Susanna & Capitoline Antinous, plus a plaster copy of Louis-François Roubiliac's marble bust of Thomas Coke above the door in the apse the original is part of his tomb in Tittleshall church, and on marble half-columns Francis Chantrey's marble busts of 'Coke of Norfolk' and a second one of Thomas Coke. There is a set of four white marble reliefs in the apse flanking the niches (added by 'Coke of Norfolk'): Thomas Banks's The Death of Germanicus, Richard Westmacott's Death of Socrates, Stoldo Lorenzi's Lorenzo I & Francis Chantrey's The Passing of the Reform Bill 1832 plus a marble plaque of two woodcock by Chantrey.
The Drawing Room: Marble copies of busts of Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla on the mantelpiece, and plaster busts of Faustina, Carneades, Pythagoras & Zeno above the doors.
The South Dining Room: Four plaster busts above the doors.
The South Vestible: consisting of a rectangular room beneath the Portico linked by five arches to a semicircular section beneath the Saloon, that has a large niche flanked by smaller ones each side of the north door, these use to house plaster casts of statues, to the west: Dancing Faun, Apollo Belvedere & Ganymede and to the east: Ptolemy, Meleager & The Venus des Belles Fesses. There also used to be busts on brackets between the piers of the arches: Cicero, Plato, Lysias & Seneca.
The Long Library: above the pedimented bookcases a marble bust of Alexander Pope and plaster copies of busts of Venus, Cybele & A Vestal Virgin.
The Classical Library: six plaster busts above the four bookcases and doors on the side walls.
Private Rooms: A series of 18th century marble copies of ancient busts, including: Homer & Alexander the Great. 'Coke of Norfolk' commissioned marble busts including: Napolean & Charles James Fox
The Corridor linking the Guest-Wing to the North Tribune: in niches flanking the bookcase and window, plaster casts of Venus de' Medici, A Camillus, Urania & Apollino (Medici Apollo).
[edit] Paintings
The present Earl has restored most of the paintings to the positions designed for them. Although three paintings are no longer in the collection, these are Titian's Venus and the Lute Player, sold in 1931 now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, this has been replaced in the current hang in the South Dining Room by Melchior d'Hondecoeter's Bird painting, the Saloon originally had in the centre of the side walls Chiari's Continence of Scipio and Pietro da Cortona's Coriolanus, the Chiari was commissioned by Thomas Coke in Rome, their present whereabouts is unknown.
The Rubens and Van Dyke paintings originally hung in the centres of the side walls in the Drawing Room. These are now hung in the Saloon and are replaced in the Drawing Room by family portraits. The fact that the greater works of art were not originally hung in the Saloon, the main room of the state apartment suggests that the subject matter of the lost paintings was of prime importance to Thomas Coke's scheme.
The Continence of Scipio, depicts the return of a captured young woman to her fiancé by Scipio, having refused to accept her from his troops as a prize of war, and Coriolanus using his military victory as an excuse to fight democracy and his failure leading to his betrayal of Rome. Again like the paintings over the fireplaces in this room, these paintings contrast the use and abuse of power, in this case clemency versus betrayal.
The Drawing Room: contains eleven paintings, above the fireplace Pietro da Pietri's Madonna in Gloria, two works by Melchior d'Hondecoeter on the upper wall flanking the fireplace of fighting birds (These are allegories on William III of England's wars, each bird representing a European nation), lower left of the fireplace Gaspar Poussin's The Storm, lower right of the fireplace Claude Lorrain's Apollo flaying Marsyas & above the doors four landscapes by Jan Frans van Bloemen, in the centre of the east wall Jonathan Richardson's portrait of Thomas Coke 1st Earl of Leicester in the robes of the Order of the Bath & in the centre of the west wall Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger's portrait of Sir Edward Coke founder of the family's fortune.
The Saloon: contains eight paintings, in the centre of the west wall Peter Paul Rubens The Return of the Holy Family, in the centre of the east wall Anthony Van Dyck's Duc D’Arenburg on Horseback (purchased in Paris in 1718 by Thomas Coke on his way back to England from Italy), above the fireplaces works commissioned by Thomas Coke in Rome, Andrea Procaccini's Tarquin Raping Lucretia & Giuseppe Bartolomeo Chiari's Perseus and Andromeda, above the western doors two paintings by Carlo Maratta Woman Playing a Spinet and Jael Murdering Sisera and above the eastern doors Agostino Scilla's paintings of Summer and Winter.
The South Dining Room: contains eleven paintings, above the fireplace Thomas Gainsborough's portrait of Coke of Norfolk, upper left of the fireplace A Naked Venus in the style of Titian, upper right of the fireplace Melchior d'Hondecoeter's Bird painting, lower left and right of the fireplace two works by Gaspar Poussin's A Stormy Landscape & A classical landscape with reclining figures, in the centre of the east wall Guido Reni's Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (acquired by 'Coke of Norfolk' in 1773), above the eastern doors Cristoforo Roncalli's Pope Julius II after Raphael & Sir Peter Lely's portrait of Edmund Waller, in the centre of the west wall Pompeo Batoni's portrait of Coke of Norfolk while on his Grand Tour, above the western doors school of Holbein Sir Thomas More & School of Titian A Venetian Lady.
The Landscape Room: contains twenty two paintings, the hang is symmetrical, they are Luca Giordano's Saint John the Baptist Preaching upper painting above the chimneypiece, all the other paintings in the room are landscapes, five works by Gaspar Poussin, seven works by Claude Lorraine including Queen Esther approaching the palace of Ahasuerus, two works by Claude Joseph Vernet, one work by Salvator Rosa, two works by Andrea Locatelli, two works by Jan Frans van Bloemen, one work by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi & one work by Domenico Zampieri.
The Green State Bedroom: contains five paintings all commissioned by Thomas Coke, above the fireplace Gavin Hamilton's Jupiter caressing Juno & above the four doors paintings by Francesco Zuccarelli depicting the seasons.
The Green State Dressing Room: includes: small scale works by Jacopo Bassano, Sebastiano Conca, Carlo Maratta & Gaspar van Wittel.
The North State Dressing Room: above the chimney piece Bastiano da Sangallo's copy of Michelangelo's destroyed cartoon of Florentines surprised by the Pisans while bathing, Procaccini's the venerable lawgiver Numa Pompilius giving law to Rome & Annibale Carracci's Galatea and Polyphemus
The North State Bedroom: Jonathan Richardson's portrait of Lady Margaret Tufton countess of Leicester & Edward Viscount Coke, Jonathan Richardson's portrait of Thomas Coke 1st Earl of Leicester & portrait of William Heveningham (he was Thomas Coke's grandfather).
The Chapel: the east wall above the altar Guido Reni's The Assumption of the Virgin flanked by Giovanni Battista Cipriani's paintings of St. Anne & St. Cecila, in the west gallery, Carlo Maratta's Virgin Holding a Book, 16th century Head of Christ by an unknown painter of the Milanese School, above the fireplace Giorgio Vasari's portrait of Pope Leo X, Bernardino Luini's Holy Family with St John the Baptist, Francesco Mazzuola's Penitent Magdalen, in the manner of van Dyke Archbishop Laud, the south wall Mattia Preti's The Adoration of the Magi, Andrea Sacchi's Abraham, Hagar and Ishmael, Giovanni Lanfranco's The Angel appearing to Joseph, on the north wall Carlo Maratta's The Virgin reading with St. John, Pietro da Cortona's A scriptural piece from the history of Jacob.
The Classical Library: above the fireplace Francesco Trevisani's 1717 portrait of Thomas Coke on his Grand Tour.
Lady Leicester's Sitting Room: Canaletto's View of the Palace of St Mark, Venice, with preparations for the Doge's Wedding in the overmantle & four views of Rome by Gaspar van Wittel.
The private rooms: contain many paintings, including Andrea Casali's portraits of Thomas Coke and his wife and Rosalba Carriera's portraits of Edward Viscount Coke and his wife Lady Mary Coke. In 1716 Thomas Coke commissioned Sebastiano Conca's The Elysian Fields, in which Coke is depicted as Orpheus.
The Guest Wing: Frans Snyder's Parrot, and works by Joshua Reynolds, Antony Van Dyck and Thomas Gainsborough.
The Kitchen: Unusually high up on the east wall is a large early 19th century portrait of a servant dressed in livery.
ld master drawings
Sadly most of the old master drawings have been sold, including: Raphael's Cartoon of the Virgin and Child with the Infant St John the Baptist, Bernini's Design for the Tomb of Cardinal Carlo Emanule Pio da Carpi, Pietro da Cortona's Christ on the Cross and Assembly of the Gods, Nicholas Poussin's View of the Tiber Valley and Wooded Landscape with River God Gathering Fruit, Guido Reni's Head of a Young Woman Looking Up, Jusepe de Ribera Adoration of the Shepherds, Frans Snyders Wild Boar at Bay, Paolo Veronese's Allegorical Female Figure Holding a Sceptre & Globe.
Books and manuscripts
Thomas Coke had purchased many books and manuscripts while on his Grand Tour, though he continued to purchase items after the Tour ended. In 1719 he bought the 'Codex Leicester', in 1721 several Greek manuscripts acquired via Consul Joseph Smith in Venice. He employed a Neapolitan called Domenico Ferrari as his librarian at Holkham on a salary of £100 per annum. He would purchase all the significant books on architecture published in England including, Giacomo Leoni's English translation of Palladio's books and Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus. Other architectural books include Leone Battista Alberti's De re aedificatoria (1452, Ten Books of Architecture) of which both an Italian edition of 1565 and an English edition of 1726 are to be found in the library as is Antoine Desgodetz's Les edifices antiques de Rome dessinés et mesurés très exactement (Paris 1682). Other interests of Coke covered were politics and music.
An extensive archive of material relating to the building of the House and the acquisition of the collections exists. Including letters from both Matthew Brettingham the elder, the executive architect and Baron Lovell (Thomas Coke's title before becoming Earl of Leicester), as well as several architectural plans and elevations showing various alternative designs including many drawings by William Kent. In 1761 Matthew Brettingham the elder published The Plans, Elevations and Sections, Of Holkham in Norfolk in which he down played the role of Kent in the design of the House. The 2nd edition of 1773 by Brettingham the Younger corrected the first edition and gave due weight to Lord Burlington's and Kent's roles in the design process. The correspondence with Matthew Brettingham the younger whilst he was in Italy is extensive, there was much discussion about potential purchases of art works, their cost, shipping and custom fees, also his account book survives with detailed entries for each art work purchased.
The Long Library: Contains 2,000 of the 10,500 books & manuscripts bought by Thomas Coke although 'Coke of Norfolk' also acquired several volumes when on his Grand Tour. All are bound in leather with gilt titles (the collection has around 15,000 books in total some of which are modern). The core of the library are books from and on Italy, especially the Renaissance.
The North Tribune: which houses around 300 of the largest books in the collection, elephant folio volumes which include architectural books of which the collection has several examples, including Italian editions of I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura.
The Classical Library: There are 700 titles, of which 209 are incunabula. Holkham Manuscript 311 is an illuminated manuscript of Virgil's Aeneid dated c1500 just one of many still in the collection. Many manuscripts have been sold from the collection including Holkham Manuscript 48 Dante's Divine Comedy, Italian 14th century, now in the Bodleian Library.
The Manuscript Library: Contains 558 literary, theological and legal manuscripts, dating from the 12th to 18th centuries. Including some that once belonged to Sir Edward Coke's, including ones related to the settlement of North America, Coke helped draft the charter of the Virginia Company. Other of his legal documents includes a 15th century copy of Magna Carter. There is also a collection of Civil War and Commonwealth pamphlets.
Additionally there is extensive book shelving in the attics.

Body work

In automotive engineering, the bodywork of an automobile is the structure which protects:
The occupants
Any other payload
The mechanical components.
In vehicles with a separate frame or chassis, the term bodywork is normally applied to only the non-structural panels, including doors and other movable panels, but it may also be used more generally to include the structural components which support the mechanical components.
Construction
There are three main types of automotive bodywork:
The first automobiles were designs adapted in large part from horse-drawn carriages, and had body-on-frame construction with a wooden frame and wooden or metal body panels. Wooden-framed motor vehicles remain in production to this day, with many of the cars made by the Morgan Motor Company still having wooden structures underlying their bodywork.
A steel chassis or ladder frame replaced the wooden frame. This form of body-on-frame construction is still common for commercial vehicles.
Monocoque, or unibody construction, in which the "chassis" is part of, and integrated with the metal body. It provides support to all the mechanical components, as well as protection for the vehicle occupants. Although there is no separate complete frame or chassis, many monocoque/unibody designs now often include subframes. Steel monocoque construction is now the most common form of car bodywork, although aluminum and carbon fiber may also be used.
Less common types include tube frame and space frame designs used for high-performance cars. There have also been various hybrids, for example the Volkswagen Beetle had a chassis, consisting of the floor pan, door sills and central tunnel, but this chassis relied on the stiffening provided by the bodywork, a technique sometimes called semi-monocoque construction.
Non-structural body panels have been made of wood, steel, aluminum, fiberglass and several more exotic materials.
Body styles
There are several common car body styles:
Enclosed:
Sedan, known as a Saloon in British English.
Hardtop
Coupé
2+2
Notchback
Limousine
Open or partly enclosed:
Roadster
Convertible (or Cabriolet)
Stanhope body
Touring car
Town car
Rear door designs:
Station wagon or Estate car
Sedan delivery
Hearse
Hatchback
Liftback
Combi coupé
Other:
Sport utility vehicle (SUV)
Crossover
Minivan
Coupe Utility
Styles in current use
4x4 or 4WD ("four-by-four" or "four-wheel drive")
A four-wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive power from the engine simultaneously. The terms are usually (but not exclusively) used in Europe to describe what is referred to in North America as a sport utility vehicle or SUV (see below).
Buggy
A Buggy is an automobile with wheels that project beyond the vehicle chassis.
Cabrio coach or Semi-convertible
A form of car roof, where a retractable textile cover amounts to a large sunroof. Fundamental to various older designs such as the Citroën 2CV; sometimes an option on modern cars.
Cabriolet
A term for a convertible (see below).

A BMW M3 convertible
Convertible
A body style with a flexible textile folding roof or rigid retracting roof — of highly variable design detail — to allow driving in open or enclosed modes.
Coupé
A 2-door, 2- or 4-seat car with a fixed roof. Its doors are often longer than those of an equivalent sedan and the rear passenger area smaller; the roof may also be low. In cases where the rear seats are very small and not intended for regular use it is called a 2+2 (pronounced "two plus two"). Originally, a coupé was required to have only one side window per side, but this consideration has not been used for many years.
Coupé utility (ute)
the coupé utility is a passenger-car derived vehicle with coupé passenger cabin lines and an integral cargo bed.
Crossover (or CUV)
A loose marketing term to describe a vehicle that blends features of a SUV with features of a car — especially forgoing the body on frame construction of the SUV in favor of the car's unibody or monocoque construction.
Estate car
British name for a station wagon.
Fastback
A design where the roof slopes at a smooth angle to the tail of the car, but the rear window does not open as a separate "door".
Hardtop
A style of car roof. Originally referred to a removable solid roof on a convertible; later, also a fixed-roof car whose doors have no fixed window frames, which is designed to resemble such a convertible.

Tata Nano Europa, a compact hatchback
Hatchback
Identified by a rear door including the back window that opens vertically to access a storage area not separated from the rest of the passenger compartment. May be 3 or 5-door and 2 to 5 seats, but generally in the US the tailgate isn't counted making it a 2-door and 4-door.
Hearse
A converted luxury car usually used to transport the dead. Often longer and heavier than the vehicle on which they are usually based. Can sometimes double up as an ambulance in some countries, such as the United States, especially in rural areas.
Leisure activity vehicle
A small van, generally related to a supermini, with a second or even a third seat row, and a large, tall boot.
Liftback
A style of coupé with a hatchback; this name is generally used when the opening area is very sloped (and is thus lifted up to open).

A Lincoln Town Car limousine
Limousine
By definition, a chauffeur-driven car with a (normally glass-windowed) division between the front seats and the rear. In German, the term simply means a sedan.
Minibus
Designed to carry fewer people than a full-size bus, generally up to 16 people in multiple rows of seats. Passenger access in normally via a sliding door on one side of the vehicle. One example of a van with a minibus version available is the Ford Transit.
Minivan
North American term for a boxy wagon-type of car usually containing three or four rows of seats, with a capacity of six or more passengers. Often with extra luggage space also. As opposed to the larger van, the minivan was developed primarily as a passenger vehicle, though is more van-like than a station wagon. In Britain, these are generally referred to as people carriers.
MPV
Multi-purpose vehicle, a large car or small bus designed to be used on and off-road and easily convertible to facilitate loading of goods from facilitating carrying people.
Notchback
A cross between the smooth fastback and angled sedan look. It is a sedan type with a separate trunk compartment.
People carrier or people mover
European name to describe what is usually referred to in North America as an Minivan.
Pickup truck a.k.a pickup
A small, medium, or large-sized truck, though smaller in every case than a Semi tractor truck. The passenger cabin is wholly separated from the cargo bed.
Pillarless
Usually a prefix to coupé, fastback, or hardtop; completely open at the sides when the windows are down, without a central pillar, e.g. the Sunbeam Rapier fastback coupé.
Ragtop
Originally an open car like a roadster, but with a soft top (cloth top) that can be raised or lowered. Unlike a convertible, it had no roll-up side windows. Now often used as slang for a convertible.
Retractable Hardtop
aka Coupé convertible or Coupé Cabriolet. A type of convertible forgoing a foldable textile roof in favor of a multi-segment rigid roof retracts into the lower bodywork.
Roadster
Originally a two-seat open car with minimal weather protection — without top or side glass — though possibly with optional hard or soft top and side curtains (i.e., without roll-up glass windows). In modern usage, the term means simply a two-seat sports car convertible, a variation of spyder.
Sedan
A car seating four or more with a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window. Known in British English as a saloon. Sedans can have 2 or 4-doors. This is the most common body style[citation needed]. In the U.S., this term has been used[who?] to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style wherein the sash, if any, winds down with the glass.

Chevrolet HHR sedan delivery
Sedan delivery
North American term for a vehicle similar to a wagon but without side windows, similar to a panel truck but with two doors (one on each side), and one or two rear doors . Often shortened to delivery; used alone, "delivery" is presumed to be a sedan delivery. No longer manufactured.
Sport utility vehicle (SUV)
Derivative of a pickup truck or 4-wheel-drive vehicle, but with fully-enclosed passenger cabin interior and carlike levels of interior equipment.
Spyder (or Spider)
Similar to a roadster but originally with less weather protection. The term originated from a small two-seat horse cart with a folding sunshade made of four bows.[citation needed] With its black cloth top and exposed sides for air circulation, the top resembled a spider. Nowadays it simply means a convertible sports car.
Shooting brake
A two-door estate car; generally for vintage or extremely expensive vehicles. They were vehicles for the well-off shooter and hunter, giving space to carry shotguns and other equipment. Usually made to order by coachbuilders.[citation needed] The term is occasionally revived.
Station wagon
A car with a full-height body all the way to the rear; the load-carrying space created is accessed via a rear door or doors. Sometimes shortened to just wagon.
Surrey top
Similar to the Porsche Targa top, the surrey top was developed by Triumph in 1962 for the TR4.
T-top
A derivative of the Targa top, called a T-bar roof, this fixed-roof design has two removable panels and retains a central narrow roof section along the front to back axis of the car (e.g. Toyota MR2 Mark I.)
Targa top
A semi-convertible style used on some sports cars, featuring a fully removable hard top roof panel which leaves the A and B pillars in place on the car body. (e.g. Fiat X1/9). Strictly, the term originated from and is trademarked by Porsche for a derivate of its 911 series, the Porsche 911 Targa, itself named after the famous Targa Florio rally. A related styling motif is the Targa band, sometimes called a wrapover band which is a single piece of chrome or other trim extending over the roof of the vehicle and down the sides to the bottom of the windows. It was probably named because the original Porsche Targa had such a band behind its removable roof panel in the late 60s.
Ute
Australian/New Zealand English term for the Coupe Utility body style (see above). Sometimes used informally to refer to any utility vehicle, particularly light trucks such as a pickup truck. In American English, sport-ute is sometimes used[who?] to refer to an SUV (see above).

A Dodge Sprinter, one particular model of van.
Van
In North America "van" refers to a truck-based commercial vehicle of the wagon style, whether used for passenger or commercial use. Usually a van has no windows at the side rear (panel van), although for passenger use, side windows are included. In other parts of the world, 'van' denotes a passenger-based wagon with no rear side windows.
Wagon delivery
North American term (mainly U.S. and Canada). Similar to a sedan delivery, with four doors. Sometimes shortened to delivery; used alone, "delivery" is presumed to be a sedan delivery. No longer manufactured.
Non-English terms
Some non-English language terms are familiar from their use on imported vehicles in English-speaking nations even though the terms have not been adopted into English.
Barchetta
Italian term for a roadster. The name means, roughly, "small boat".
Berlina
Italian term for a sedan.
Berline
French term for a sedan.
Berlinetta
Italian term for a sport coupé.
Break
French term for a station wagon.
Carrinha
Portuguese term for a station wagon. Not used in Brazilian Portuguese.
Espada
Portuguese nickname for a limousine (the same word for Sword - long piece of metal). Not used in Brazilian Portuguese.
Furgoneta
Portuguese term for a van. Not used in Brazilian Portuguese.
Furgão
Portuguese alternative term (less used) for a van. Used in Brazilian Portuguese.
Jeep
Russian, Bulgarian, German, Portuguese, Hebrew and Greek term for a sport utility vehicle. Originally from the English-language jeep, of which the name's origins can be researched on the Jeep page.
Kombi
is a German abbreviation of "Kombinationswagen" (Combination Car) and it is German name for station wagon. Since Germany is a major producer of cars for many European countries, the term Kombi in this meaning is also used in Swedish, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian, Hungarian, Spanish, Portuguese, Bulgarian. In Afrikaans, Kombi is also used to refer to a Volkswagen Microbus
Minibus
Danish term for Minivan.
Stationcar
Danish term for station wagon.
Turismo
Spanish term for a sedan. Literally means tourism, used mostly in Latin American countries.
Alternative names
Car manufacturers sometimes invent names for the body styles of their cars for the purpose of differentiating themselves from other manufacturers. These names are often, but not always, adaptations of other words and terms. The body styles themselves correlate closely to those listed above.
Aerodeck
Name used by Honda in the 1990s for its station wagon/estate models.
Avant
A name used by German maker Audi for their station wagon/estate car models.
Bakkie
A generic South African term for light pickup truck.

A 1968 Chevrolet El Camino
Break
A term used by Peugeot and Citroen to describe estates
El Camino
(Spanish) In English: "the road". A trademark of Chevrolet, the 1959 El Camino was a half-car (front) and half-truck (back) with low walls surrounding the bed. In other words, it used the coupé utility body style. El Camino is used by some in the US as a generic term for any passenger car with an integral cargo bed. While the 1957 Ford Ranchero with similar body style debuted before the El Camino, it did not have the success of its Chevrolet counterpart.
Caravan
Used by Opel for its station wagon/estate car models.
Combi
Used by Škoda for its station wagon/estate car models.
Combi coupé
A name used by Saab for a cross between a saloon and an estate car, essentially a hatchback. Called "SportCombi" in the United States.
Corniche
Sometimes used to describe a luxury sedan or town car. Actually a trade mark of Rolls-Royce.
Coupe Roadster
The Mercedes-Benz name for their convertibles with a removable hardtop.
Fordor and Tudor
These names were coined by Ford Motor Company in the 1950s to describe four-door and two-door bodystyles respectively. These terms were used sporadically into the 1960s.
Giardinetta
Name used in Italy in the 70s and early 80s in models for an Autobianchi three-door station wagon based on Fiat 600, as well as a similar version of the Alfa Romeo Alfasud.
Hardtop Convertible
A retractable hardtop, e.g., the 1958 Ford Skyliner or Peugeot's décapotable électrique of 1934.
HPE
Short for High Performance Estate, a name used by Lancia for a station wagon version of their Beta model. Resurrected for the three-door hatch version of the Lancia Delta Mk II.
Kammback
Originally, a car with a tapered rear that cuts off abruptly, after that shape's inventor Wunibald Kamm, commonly seen especially on sports cars. However, this usage is rare nowadays. In North America during the 1970s this style was used in the Chevrolet Vega wagon and AMC Hornet wagon, and so many think of it as another word for "station wagon" or "hatchback" respectively even though it refers to the very specific aerodynamic design of the back of the car. This style is seeing a resurgence on modern vehicles (2004 Toyota Prius and Honda Insight) in the interests of gasoline economy.
Nevada
Popular station wagon/estate version of the Renault 21, so much that people dropped the 21 when referring to it.
Notchback
Originally, a sedan or possibly a coupe with a backlight (rear window) which slanted backward, so that the top of the roof extended further backward than the bottom of the window. Some types of the 1958 Lincoln had this, as well as some of Ford's British cars. Later, it became used for sedans or coupes which are not fastbacks, including many hatchbacks.
Panorama
Used by Fiat for station wagons during the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the 127, 128 and 131. Replaced by the Weekend designation in the mid 1980s, but kept for passenger versions of light commercial vehicles.
Pillared Hardtop
This name was used by Ford in the 1970s to describe its bodies which had frameless door glass like a hardtop, but retained a center pillar like a sedan. The 1972-1976 Torino sedans and wagons were of this type, as were the 1975-1979 Lincoln Town Cars. When GM introduced a similar style on their intermediates for 1973–1977, they called the two-doors Colonnade Hardtop Coupe and the four-doors, in a triumph of ad agency gibberish, Colonnade Hardtop Sedan. The 1976 Buick Century sedan used this configuration. Before Ford introduced its "Pillared Hardtops" in the early seventies, GM had the same body style available on its "C" body cars (Buick Electra 225, Oldsmobile 98 and Cadillacs) from 1965 to 1970. GM called them "semi-thin pillar sedans" as they had a slightly larger center pillars than other GM sedans (that were called "thin pillar sedans") but they had no window frames like the "thin pillar sedans" had.
Prairie
A high roofed station wagon, after the Nissan model of the same name.
Sport Activity Coupe (SAC)
This name is used by BMW for their X5-based X6, which is called so because although it's an SUV, the X6 has the styling, ride height, and seating capacity of a typical coupe.
Sport Activity Vehicle (SAV)
This name is used by BMW for their sport utility vehicle models. It was first used on the X5 and later on the X3.
Sport sedan or Sports sedan
is how General Motors calls its models by Saab automobile.
Sportshatch
This term, which has been used by GM for several European models, has been applied to a number of body styles: A sporty liftback or hatchback and a sporty variant of a 2-door estate car (e.g. Vauxhall Magnum Sportshatch).

A Dodge Magnum, sometimes referred to as a sports wagon
Sportwagon
A term used by Alfa Romeo to describe estates
Sports Wagon
A term used by a number of manufacturers in the North American market for their station wagon models, an example of the Sports Wagon would be the 1960s Buick Sport Wagon and the current Dodge Magnum. Auto manufacturers in recent years perceive a stigma attached to the term 'station wagon', and attempt to make these models sound more exciting.
SW
A term used by Peugeot to describe estates (e.g. Peugeot 407 SW) The SW models of Peugeot (without 206 SW) are station wagons with glass panoramic roof. There are also BREAK versions,which are station wagons without a glass roof.
Tourer
Used by Rover for its station wagon/estate car models.
Touring
Used by BMW and Mercedes-Benz in Europe for its station wagon/estate car models. In North America, "Sports Wagon" is used instead.
Traveller
Name applied to the Mini's estate version. Later co-opted by Nissan and used for estate versions of the Sunny and Primera in Europe.
Turnier
Used by Ford in Europe for its station wagon/estate car models. Alternatively called Clipper in some markets.
Variant
Used by Volkswagen for its station wagon/estate car models.
Vario
Used by SEAT for its station wagon/estate car models.
Verso
Used by Toyota for MPV versions of the Yaris/Vitz, Corolla and Avensis.
Volante
Used by Aston Martin for convertibles.
Weekend
Used by Fiat for station wagons since the 1980s, including the Regata, Tempra and Marea, as well as the small Brazilian-built world car estates Duna and Palio.