Since its introduction in the 1970s, CT has become an important tool in medical imaging to supplement X-rays and medical ultrasonography. It has more recently begun to also be used for preventive medicine or screening for disease, for example CT colonography for patients with a high risk of colon cancer, or full-motion heart scans for patients with high risk of heart disease. A number of institutions offer full-body scans for the general population. However, this is a controversial practice, given its lack of proven benefit, cost, radiation exposure, and the risk of finding 'incidental' abnormalities that may trigger additional investigations.
Head
CT scanning of the head is typically used to detect infarction, tumours, calcifications, haemorrhage and bone trauma.
Of the above, hypodense (dark) structures indicate infraction or tumours, hyperdense (bright) structures indicate calcifications and haemorrhage and bone trauma can be seen as disjunction in bone windows.
CT can be used for detecting both acute and chronic changes in the lung parenchyma, that is, the internals of the lungs. It is particularly relevant here because normal two dimensional x-rays do not show such defects. A variety of different techniques are used depending on the suspected abnormality. For evaluation of chronic interstitial processes (emphysema, fibrosis, and so forth), thin sections with high spatial frequency reconstructions are used—often scans are performed both in inspiration and expiration. This special technique is called High Resolution CT (HRCT). HRCT is normally done with thin section with skipped areas between the thin sections. Therefore it produces a sampling of the lung and not continuous images. Continuous images are provided in a standard CT of the chest.
For detection of airspace disease (such as pneumonia) or cancer, relatively thick sections and general purpose image reconstruction techniques may be adequate. IV contrast may also be used as it clarifies the anatomy and boundaries of the great vessels and improves assessment of the mediastinum and hilar regions for lymphadenopathy; this is particularly important for accurate assessment of cancer.
CT angiography of the chest is also becoming the primary method for detecting pulmonary embolism (PE) and aortic dissection, and requires accurately timed rapid injections of contrast (Bolus Tracking) and high-speed helical scanners. CT is the standard method of evaluating abnormalities seen on chest X-ray and of following findings of uncertain acute significance. Cardiac CTA is now being used to diagnose coronary artery disease.
According to the 2007 New England Journal of Medicine study, 19.2 million (31%) of the 62 million CTs done every year are for lung CTs.
Pulmonary angiogram
CT pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) is a medical diagnostic test used to diagnose pulmonary embolism (PE). It employs computed tomography to obtain an image of the pulmonary arteries.
It is a preferred choice of imaging in the diagnosis of PE due to its minimally invasive nature for the patient, whose only requirement for the scan is a cannula (usually a 20G).
MDCT (multi detector CT) scanners give the optimum resolution and image quality for this test. Images are usually taken on a 0.625 mm slice thickness, although 2 mm is sufficient. 50–100 mls of contrast is given to the patient at a rate of 4 ml/s. The tracker/locator is placed at the level of the pulmonary arteries, which sit roughly at the level of the carina. Images are acquired with the maximum intensity of radio-opaque contrast in the pulmonary arteries. This is done using bolus tracking.
CT machines are now so sophisticated that the test can be done with a patient visit of 5 minutes with an approximate scan time of only 5 seconds or less.
A normal CTPA scan will show the contrast filling the pulmonary vessels, looking bright white. Ideally the aorta should be empty of contrast, to reduce any partial volume artifact which may result in a false positive. Any mass filling defects, such as an embolus, will appear dark in place of the contrast, filling / blocking the space where blood should be flowing into the lungs.
Cardiac
With the advent of subsecond rotation combined with multi-slice CT (up to 64-slice), high resolution and high speed can be obtained at the same time, allowing excellent imaging of the coronary arteries (cardiac CT angiography). Images with an even higher temporal resolution can be formed using retrospective ECG gating. In this technique, each portion of the heart is imaged more than once while an ECG trace is recorded. The ECG is then used to correlate the CT data with their corresponding phases of cardiac contraction. Once this correlation is complete, all data that were recorded while the heart was in motion (systole) can be ignored and images can be made from the remaining data that happened to be acquired while the heart was at rest (diastole). In this way, individual frames in a cardiac CT investigation have a better temporal resolution than the shortest tube rotation time.
Because the heart is effectively imaged more than once (as described above), cardiac CT angiography results in a relatively high radiation exposure around 12 mSv. For the sake of comparison, a chest X-ray carries a dose of approximately 0.02[10] to 0.2 mSv and natural background radiation exposure is around 0.01 mSv/day. Thus, cardiac CTA is equivalent to approximately 100-600 chest X-rays or over 3 years worth of natural background radiation. Methods are available to decrease this exposure, however, such as prospectively decreasing radiation output based on the concurrently acquired ECG (aka tube current modulation.) This can result in a significant decrease in radiation exposure, at the risk of compromising image quality if there is any arrhythmia during the acquisition. The significance of radiation doses in the diagnostic imaging range has not been proven, although the possibility of inducing an increased cancer risk across a population is a source of significant concern. This potential risk must be weighed against the competing risk of not performing a test and potentially not diagnosing a significant health problem such as coronary artery disease.
It is uncertain whether this modality will replace invasive coronary catheterization. Currently, it appears that the greatest utility of cardiac CT lies in ruling out coronary artery disease rather than ruling it in. This is because the test has a high sensitivity (greater than 90%) and thus a negative test result means that a patient is very unlikely to have coronary artery disease and can be worked up for other causes of their chest symptoms. This is termed a high negative predictive value. A positive result is less conclusive and often will be confirmed (and possibly treated) with subsequent invasive angiography. The positive predictive value of cardiac CTA is estimated at approximately 82% and the negative predictive value is around 93%.
Dual Source CT scanners, introduced in 2005, allow higher temporal resolution by acquiring a full CT slice in only half a rotation, thus reducing motion blurring at high heart rates and potentially allowing for shorter breath-hold time. This is particularly useful for ill patients who have difficulty holding their breath or who are unable to take heart-rate lowering medication.
The speed advantages of 64-slice MSCT have rapidly established it as the minimum standard for newly installed CT scanners intended for cardiac scanning. Manufacturers are now actively developing 256-slice and true 'volumetric' scanners, primarily for their improved cardiac scanning performance.
The latest MSCT scanners acquire images only at 70-80% of the R-R interval (late diastole). This prospective gating can reduce effective dose from 10-15mSv to as little as 1.2mSv in follow-up patients acquiring at 75% of the R-R interval. Effective doses at a centre with well trained staff doing coronary imaging can average less than the doses for conventional coronary angiography.
Abdominal and pelvic
CT is a sensitive method for diagnosis of abdominal diseases. It is used frequently to determine stage of cancer and to follow progress. It is also a useful test to investigate acute abdominal pain (especially of the lower quadrants, whereas ultrasound is the preferred first line investigation for right upper quadrant pain). Renal stones, appendicitis, pancreatitis, diverticulitis, abdominal aortic aneurysm, and bowel obstruction are conditions that are readily diagnosed and assessed with CT. CT is also the first line for detecting solid organ injury after trauma.
Oral and/or rectal contrast may be used depending on the indications for the scan. A dilute (2% w/v) suspension of barium sulfate is most commonly used. The concentrated barium sulfate preparations used for fluoroscopy e.g. barium enema are too dense and cause severe artifacts on CT. Iodinated contrast agents may be used if barium is contraindicated (for example, suspicion of bowel injury). Other agents may be required to optimize the imaging of specific organs, such as rectally administered gas (air or carbon dioxide) or fluid (water) for a colon study, or oral water for a stomach study.
CT has limited application in the evaluation of the pelvis. For the female pelvis in particular, ultrasound and MRI are the imaging modalities of choice. Nevertheless, it may be part of abdominal scanning (e.g. for tumors), and has uses in assessing fractures.
CT is also used in osteoporosis studies and research alongside dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Both CT and DXA can be used to assess bone mineral density (BMD) which is used to indicate bone strength, however CT results do not correlate exactly with DXA (the gold standard of BMD measurement). CT is far more expensive, and subjects patients to much higher levels of ionizing radiation, so it is used infrequently.
Extremities
CT is often used to image complex fractures, especially ones around joints, because of its ability to reconstruct the area of interest in multiple planes. Fractures, ligamentous injuries and dislocations can easily be recognised with a 0.2 mm resolution. [11][12]
Advantages and hazards
Advantages over traditional radiography
There are several advantages that CT has over traditional 2D medical radiography. First, CT completely eliminates the superimposition of images of structures outside the area of interest. Second, because of the inherent high-contrast resolution of CT, differences between tissues that differ in physical density by less than 1% can be distinguished. Finally, data from a single CT imaging procedure consisting of either multiple contiguous or one helical scan can be viewed as images in the axial, coronal, or sagittal planes, depending on the diagnostic task. This is referred to as multiplanar reformatted imaging.
CT is regarded as a moderate to high radiation diagnostic technique. While technical advances have improved radiation efficiency, there has been simultaneous pressure to obtain higher-resolution imaging and use more complex scan techniques, both of which require higher doses of radiation. The improved resolution of CT has permitted the development of new investigations, which may have advantages; compared to conventional angiography for example, CT angiography avoids the invasive insertion of an arterial catheter and guidewire; CT colonography (also known as virtual colonoscopy or VC for short) may be as useful as a barium enema for detection of tumors, but may use a lower radiation dose. CT VC is increasingly being used in the UK as a diagnostic test for bowel cancer and can negate the need for a colonoscopy.
The greatly increased availability of CT, together with its value for an increasing number of conditions, has been responsible for a large rise in popularity. So large has been this rise that, in the most recent comprehensive survey in the United Kingdom, CT scans constituted 7% of all radiologic examinations, but contributed 47% of the total collective dose from medical X-ray examinations in 2000/2001.[13] Increased CT usage has led to an overall rise in the total amount of medical radiation used, despite reductions in other areas. In the United States and Japan for example, there were 26 and 64 CT scanners per 1 million population in 1996. In the U.S., there were about 3 million CT scans performed in 1980, compared to an estimated 62 million scans in 2006.[14]
The radiation dose for a particular study depends on multiple factors: volume scanned, patient build, number and type of scan sequences, and desired resolution and image quality. Additionally, two helical CT scanning parameters that can be adjusted easily and that have a profound effect on radiation dose are tube current and pitch.[15]
Computed tomography (CT) scan has been shown to be more accurate than radiographs in evaluating anterior interbody fusion but may still over-read the extent of fusion.[16]
Safety concerns
The increased use of CT scans has been the greatest in two fields: screening of adults (screening CT of the lung in smokers, virtual colonoscopy, CT cardiac screening and whole-body CT in asymptomatic patients) and CT imaging of children. Shortening of the scanning time to around 1 second, eliminating the strict need for subject to remain still or be sedated, is one of the main reasons for large increase in the pediatric population (especially for the diagnosis of appendicitis).[14] CT scans of children have been estimated to produce non-negligible increases in the probability of lifetime cancer mortality, leading to calls for the use of reduced current settings for CT scans of children.[17] These calculations are based on the assumption of a linear relationship between radiation dose and cancer risk; this claim is controversial, as some but not all evidence shows that smaller radiation doses are less harmful.[14] Estimated lifetime cancer mortality risks attributable to the radiation exposure from a CT in a 1-year-old are 0.18% (abdominal) and 0.07% (head)—an order of magnitude higher than for adults—although those figures still represent a small increase in cancer mortality over the background rate. In the United States, of approximately 600,000 abdominal and head CT examinations annually performed in children under the age of 15 years, a rough estimate is that 500 of these individuals might ultimately die from cancer attributable to the CT radiation.[18] The additional risk is still very low (0.35%) compared to the background risk of dying from cancer (23%).[18] However, if these statistics are extrapolated to the current number of CT scans, the additional rise in cancer mortality could be 1.5 to 2%. Furthermore, certain conditions can require children to be exposed to multiple CT scans. Again, these calculations can be problematic because the assumptions underlying them could overestimate the risk.[14]
In 2009 a number of studies appeared that further defined the risk of cancer that may be caused by CT scans.[19] One study indicated that radiation by CT scans is often higher and more variable than cited and each of the 19,500 CT scans that are daily performed in the US is equivalent to 30 to 442 chest x-rays in radiation. It has been estimated that CT radiation exposure will result in 29,000 new cancer cases just from the CT scans performed in 2007.[19] The most common cancers caused by CT are thought to be lung cancer, colon cancer and leukemia with younger people and women more at risk. These conclusions, however, are criticized by the American College of Radiology (ACR) that maintains that the life expectancy of CT scanned patients is not that of the general population and that the model of calculating cancer is based on total body radiation exposure and thus faulty.[19]
CT scans can be performed with different settings for lower exposure in children, although these techniques are often not employed. Surveys have suggested that currently, many CT scans are performed unnecessarily. Ultrasound scanning or magnetic resonance imaging are alternatives (for example, in appendicitis or brain imaging) without the risk of radiation exposure. Although CT scans come with an additional risk of cancer (it can be estimated that the radiation exposure from a full body scan is the same as standing 2.4 km away from the WWII atomic bomb blasts in Japan[20]), especially in children, the benefits that stem from their use outweighs the risk in many cases.[18] Studies support informing parents of the risks of pediatric CT scanning.[21]
Typical scan doses
| Examination | Typical effective dose (mSv) | (millirem) |
|---|---|---|
| Chest X-ray | 0.1 | 10 |
| Head CT | 1.5[22] | 150 |
| Screening mammography | 3[14] | 300 |
| Abdomen CT | 5.3[22] | 530 |
| Chest CT | 5.8[22] | 580 |
| CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy) | 3.6–8.8 | 360–880 |
| Chest, abdomen and pelvis CT | 9.9[22] | 990 |
| Cardiac CT angiogram | 6.7-13[23] | 670–1300 |
| Barium enema | 15[14] | 1500 |
| Neonatal abdominal CT | 20[14] | 2000 |
For purposes of comparison, the average background exposure in the UK is 1-3 mSv per year.
No comments:
Post a Comment